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Class _ £ / 7 & 
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Copyright N"^M__8-_2js2> 

COFYKIGHT DEPOStT. 



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A HISTORY 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

OF AMERICA 

ITS PEOPLE. AND ITS INSTITUTIONS 

BY 

CHARLES MORRIS 

AUTHOR OF "an elementary HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," " HISTORICAL TALES,' 
"half-hours with AMERICAN HISTORY," ETC. 

IV/T// MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 




PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 

Jo B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



El79 
,( 

. M?73 



COPYRIGHT, 1897, 1907, 1909, I9II, I912, 191.?, I914, 
I9I5. I916, 1918, 1920, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



©CI.A604106 



W 1 5 1320 

Electrolyped and Printed by 
J. B. Lippincoit Company, Philadelphia, U.S.A. 



PREFACE. 



In the intellectual development of the youth of America 
there can be no more healthful and important discipline 
than a study of the history of their own country in its 
events, institutions, and social and industrial movements. 
As an aid to the acquirement of such knowledge this work 
has been prepared. It is necessarily condensed in state- 
ment, yet even in a volume of this extent it is quite possi- 
ble to indicate the leading events of United States history, 
show their relations and historical significance, and give a 
fair general comprehension of the circumstances attending 
the civilized occupation of America. 

In the preparation of this work several essential consid- 
erations have been kept steadily in view. These include 
clearness and accuracy of statement, simplicity of language, 
and avoidance of partisan or sectional opinions, impartiality 
being made a leading requisite. This country has been the 
scene not only of rapid progress in times of peace, but of 
several wars of great political significance. While it was 
not deemed expedient to dwell on the details of these wars, 
their causes, general movements, and results have been 
given in each instance in such fulness as its importance 
seemed to demand. 

The public conception of what constitutes history has 
greatly broadened within the present century. Formerly 
the doings of courts and kings and the details of battles and 
sieges were the leading considerations. Now the doings of 
the people are deemed equally, if not more, important, and 



iv PREFACE. 

the social, economical, ethical, and other elements of human 
life and progress attract the careful attention of the histo- 
rian. In the present work these leading elements of his- 
torical development have been somewhat fully dwelt upon, 
the more important of them being specially treated in sep- 
arate chapters. For example, the subject of the develop- 
ment of political institutions has been thus epitomized, in 
order that the student, instead of being obliged to seek 
throughout the book for references to this subject, may 
read its history consecutively. Other elements of our 
national life have been similarly treated. 

After Section 1 there will be found an analytical table of 
the subjects embraced in that section. This is given simply 
as an example to guide pupils in preparing similar analyses 
of the succeeding sections, an exercise which will have its 
value in impressing upon their minds the succession and 
relations of historical events. No series of consecutive 
questions has been given, since it is well known that ad- 
vanced modern teachers prefer to make their own ques- 
tions from the text. As a useful aid in this, the subject- 
matter of every distinctive paragraph has been indicated by 
a word or phrase which will serve as a ready basis for ques- 
tions on the topics embraced, and also as an aid in im- 
pressmg the subject treated on the pupil's mind. The 
writer has therefore confined himself to a chronological 
table of important events and a series of questions useful 
for review. 

As additional aids to the student, maps and illustrations 
have been somewhat abundantly provided, while much 
anecdotal, biographical, and other information has been 
appended in the form of notes. With these remarks this 
work is offered to the world of schools, where the best test 
of merit, that of actual use, can be applied. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 
DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

PAGE 

1 . The Era of Discovery 11 

2. The Indians, their Characteristics and Customs 28 



PART II. 

THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 

1. The Spanish Explorers 41 

2. The French Explorers 45 

3. The English Explorers 53 

4 The Dutch Explorers 58 



PART III. 

THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

1. The Colony in Virginia 61 

2. The New England Colonies 77 

Plymouth 77 

Massachusetts Bay 83 

Maine and New Hampshire 90 

Rhode Island 92 

Connecticut 94 

The Confederated Colonies 98 

3. New York and New Jersey 102 

New Netherland 102 

New York 106 

New Jersey 108 

V 



vi CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

4.^ Pennsylvania and Delaware 110 

6. Maryland 110 

6. NoRTU AND South Carolina 121 

7. Georgia 120 

8. Louisiana 12'J 

9. Customs and Conditions of the Colonies 131 

New England 131 

The Middle Colonies 138 

The Southern Colonies 141 



PART IV. 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

1. King William's War 145 

2. Queen Anne's War 148 

3. King George's War 149 

4. The French and Indian War 152 



PART V. 

FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

1. A New Kino and a New Policy 172 

2. The Colonies in PiEbellion 188 

3. The Struggle for Independence 203 

4. The War in the South 223 

5. The Birth of a Nation 233 

6. The Condition of the Country 241 



PART VI. 



THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

1. Washington's Administration 247 

2. John Adams's Administration 256 

3. Jefferson's Administration 201 

4. Madison's Administration 270 

5. The Second War with Great Britain 274 



CONTENTS. vii 

PART VII. 
THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

PAGE 

1. Monroe's Administration 286 

2. John Quincy Adams's Administration 295 

3. Jackson's Administration 299 

4. Van Buren's Administration 307 

5. The Harrison and Tyler Administrations 311 



PART VIII. 

THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

1. Polk's Administration 320 

2. The Taylor and Fillmore Administrations 330 

3. Pierce's Administration '. 334 

4. Buchanan's Administration 340 



PART IX. 

THE CIVIL WAR. 

1. Lincoln's Administration 348 

2. The North and the South 352 

3. The Opening of the War 355 

4. The War in Kentucky and Tennessee 363 

5. The East in 1862 371 

6. The Campaigns of 1863 380 

7. The Final Campaigns of the War 390 

8. The Country during the War 407 



PART X. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 

1. Johnson's Administration 412 

2. Grant's Administration 418 

3. Hayes's Administration .... 428 



Viii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

4. The Garfield and Arthur Administrations 432 

5. Cleveland's Administration 435 

6. Benjamin Harrison's Administration 438 

7. Cleveland's Second Administration 445 

8. McKinley's Administration 450 

9. IIoosevelt's Administration 4(55 

10. Taet's Administration 469 

11. Wilson's Administration 474 



PART XI. 

STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

1. Governmental Conditions in the Colonies ^^5 

2. Later Development of Government 492 

3. Political Parties 49,s 

4. The Story of Slavery 502 

5. Progress of Finance 509 

6. Population and Immigration 517 

7. Transportation and Postal Faciilities 523 

8. Industrial Conditions and Development 531 

9. Literature, Science, and Art 541 

10. Educational Progress 54(5 

11. The Nation of To-day 551 

12. The Mayflower Compact 558 

13. The J3eclaration of Independence 559 

14. The Constitution of the United States 5(54 

15. Table of States and Territories 581 

16. Table of the Presidents 582 

17. Summary of Chronology 583 

18. List of Books for Reference 589 

19. Questions for Review 591 

20. Index 



601 



LIST OF ILLUSFRATIONS. 



PAGP 

The ships of the Northmen 13 

Christopher Columbus 18 

The ships of Columbus 21 

Indian chief 28 

Indian woman 29 

Indian pottery 30 

Indian woman weaving 30 

Indian bow and arrow 31 

Indian quiver and bow-case 32 

An Indian shield 33 

Indians building a canoe 34 

Penn treaty wampum belt 36 

Indian stone implements 37 

Indian implements of shell 37 

A Pueblo habitation 39 

Fort San Marco, St. Augustine 47 

Euins of Fort TIconderoga 50 

A French woodsman 52 

Sir Walter Haleigh 55 

The Half-Moon in the Hudson 58 

John Smith on an exploring expedition 63 

Smith meeting the Indians 64 

Marriage of Pocahontas 68 

John Winthrop 84 

Placing the charter in the oak 100 

Peter Stuyvesant 105 

William Penn, age 21 110 

Early Philadelphia 112 

Penn's treaty with the Indians 113 

Proprietary seal of Pennsylvania 115 

Cecilius Calvert (second Lord Baltimore) 116 

James Oglethorpe 127 

Costumes cf French settlers 130 

ix 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

A block-house 133 

Pioneer dwelling 134 

Costumes of the Puritans 136 

Scene in New Amsterdam 139 

Dutch settlers 140 

Colonial fireplace 141 

Costume of English settlers 142 

Braddock's defeat ] 58 

Expulsion of the Acadians 161 

General Wolfe 167 

A stamp-act stamp 178 

Patrick Henry 179 

Faneuil Hall 182 

Boston tea-party 186 

Revolutionary soldier 191 

John Hancock 195 

Signing the Declaration of Independence 202 

Washington's army crossing the Delaware 207 

The Chew House 211 

Washington's head-quarters at Valley Forge 212 

Pine-tree and rattlesnake flags 215 

Anthony Wayne 221 

John Paul Jones 222 

The Andre captors' medal 226 

Nathaniel Greene 227 

Surrender of Cornwallis 232 

Capture of Daniel Boone 233 

Independence Hall 238 

Mississippi flat-Loat '242 

A colonial chair 244 

George Washington 248 

Alexander Hamilton 251 

Mount Vernon 255 

John Adams .- 256 

Chief Justice John ilarshali 260 

Thomas Jefferson 261 

Commodore Decatur 262 

James Madison 270 

Capture of the Cyane and Levant by the Constiiuuon 277 

James Monroe 286 

Henry Clay 29J 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XI 

PAGE 

On the Erie Canal 293 

Marquis de Lafayette 294 

John Quincy Adams 296 

Andrew Jackson 300 

John C. Calhoun 301 

Daniel Webster 301 

Chicago in 1832 308 

Martin Van Buren 308 

William Henry Harrison 311 

John Tyler 312 

James K. Polk 320 

Winfield Scott 324 

Cliapultepec to-day 325 

San Francisco in 1848 327 

Zachary Taylor 330 

Millard Fillmore 332 

Franklin Pierce 334 

James Buchanan 340 

Laying the Atlantic cable 344 

Jefferson Davis 346 

Abraham Lincoln 348 

United States flag 356 

Confederate flags 356 

Battle of the Monitor and Merrimac 362 

George B. McClellan 373 

Robert E. Lee 375 

Confederate works at Fredericksburg 378 

A scene at Gettysburg 384 

Night scene on the retreat from Gettysburg 385 

Battle of Chickamauga 388 

Philip Sheridan 394 

William T. Sherman 395 

Sherman's march to the sea 399 

Battle in Mobile Bay 401 

The last Confederate battle line 405 

Andrew Johnson 412 

Ulysses S. Grant 418 

Meeting of the Union and Central Pacific Railroads 420 

Battle at the Little Big Horn 424 

Rutherford B. Hayes 428 

James A. Garfield 432 



Eii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Chester A. Arthur 433 

Grover Cleveland 43Q 

Benjamin Harrison 439 

The Court of Honor at Chicago 444 

Fleet of United States war-vessels in harbor ... 449 

"William McKinloy 45I 

Theodore Roosevelt . . 453 

^yilli:uu n. Taft 4gg 

Woodrow Wilson 474 

Benjamin Franklin 491' 

Pine-tree shilling 511 

Continental money ril 1 

An emigrant train 520 

The Conestoga wagon 52") 

Fulton's steamboat 525 

The ocean steamer of to-day 52() 

The locomotive of to-day 528 

The pony express 580 

Cutting grass with the scythe 581 

Threshing with the flail 582 

Colonial plough 584 

Steam-plough 584 

Steam threshing-machine 535 

Harvesting and binding machine 58H 

A modern power woolen loom 589 

An irriiration canal , , , 551 



MAPS. 



PAGE 

United States (colored) Front of volume. 

Acquisitions of territory (colored) End of volume. 

Early French settlements in Canada 49 

English, French, Spanish, and Dutch claims 59 

The middle colonies 70 

New England and New Netherland 91 

Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware 114 

The Carolinas and Georgia 122 

French settlements in the West and South 129 

English territory before the French and Indian War 152 

The Fort Duquesne campaign 156 

The seat of war in New York 163 

The siege of Quebec 165 

English territory after the French and Indian War 168 

Boston and vicinity 194 

The New Jersey campaign 206 

General map of the Revolutionary War (colored) 209 

Burgoyne's route 213 

Siege of Yorktown 231 

Battle-fields on the Niagara 279 

Northern Battle-fields of the war of 1812-15 281 

New Orleans and the Creek W^ar 283 

War with Mexico 321 

Battle-fields of Kentucky and Tennessee 363 

McClellan's campaign, Yorktown to Richmond 372 

Battle-fields of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania 377 

Plan of the battle of Gettysburg 382 

Grant's Vicksburg campaign 387 

Grant's campaign, Wilderness to Petersburg 391 

Sherman's march, Atlanta to Raleigh 398 

Hawaii 446 

Cuba 452 

Philippine Islands 460 

Porto Rico 552 



HISTORY 



THE UNITED STATES. 



PART I. 

DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 



I. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 

Mediaeval Conditions. — If we could go back to a period 
more than four hundred years ago we should find Europe 
in a very different condition from what travellers see there 
to-day. Then its population was much smaller, its wealth 
much less. There were little commerce, little enterprise, 
and little liberty. The great industries of to-day were un- 
known. Wars were common, oppression and injustice 
were universal. People could neither do nor think as they 
pleased. They must accept the religion provided for them 
by their rulers or suffer imprisonment and torture. Super- 
stition and ignorance everywhere prevailed. Even the most 
learned men knew very little of the earth upon which they 
lived. Europe was fairly well known, and something was 
known of Southern and Eastern Asia and Northern Africa ; 
but the vast oceans which are now the highways of com- 
merce had never been traversed, and no one had dreamed 
of the great continent of America. 

11 



12 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

The Northmen. — It is true that America had been visited 
from Europe more than four hundred years earlier. But 
nothing of this was known in Southern Europe until cen- 
turies, afterward. The people of Norway, Sweden, and 
Denmark, often spoken of as the Northmen, were then rude 
and barbarous in character, but had long been skilful and 
daring navigators. In their small, open vessels they did not 
tear to make long voyages and venture far out to sea. For 
centuries they made piratical raids upon the countries of 
the south, and about the year 850 a.d. one of their vessels 
was driven by a storm to Iceland, an island of the far 
northern seas. Here they formed a settlement in 874, from 
which their light ships ventured farther west, till at length 
one of them reached the southern coast of Greenland.^ 
Here a colony was formed in 986 near Cape Farewell, 
which lasted about five hundred years.^ 

The Continent Discovered. — Not long afterward a ves- 
sel on its way to Greenland was driven from its course by a 
storm, and its crew saw land far to the south. In the year 
1000 Leif, son of Eric the Red, the discoverer of Greenland, 
sailed south to explore this land. He landed at several 
points, and at length reached a region where wild grapes 
grew in abundance, for which reason he named it Vinland 
(Vine-land). Wliere Vinland was we do not know. It may 
have been as far south as Massachusetts, or it may have 
been farther north.^ 

' In their voyages the Northmen are said to have often taken ravens 
with them. When in doubt where to find land they set the birds free 
and followed the direction of their flight. 

* The ruins of several villages and churches, built of stone, still 
remain at this locality, but the present settlements in Greenland were 
made at a later date. 

' Many supposed relics of the Northmen have been found in New 
England. The most famous of these is a curious old tower, called 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 



13 



Other Voyages . — Other voyages were made to Vin- 
land, and one explorer tried to found a colony there, but 
the savage people of the country gave the colonists so 
much troll])!*' that after tliree years they went a. way. ^ Not 




The Shtps of the Northmen. 



long afterward all visits to Vinland ceased. At a later date 
the story of this discovery was written down in Iceland. 
Three manuscript accounts still exist, which contain much 



the "Old Stone Mill," at Newport, Rhode Island. But it is now be- 
lieved that this was built by Governor Benedict Arnold about 1675. 
Another is an inscription in picture-writing on Dighton Rock, near 
Taunton, Massachusetts. But this is now known to be an Indian 
inscription. No undoubted relic of the Northmen has been found. 

^ Snorri, the son of one of these settlers, was the first child of white 
parents born on this continent. It is interesting to learn that from 
this first "American" descended a family of much note in the north. 
Thorwaldsen, the famous sculptor of Denmark, is said tc have beea 
one of his descendants. 



14 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

information about the country, its plants and animals, the 
habits of its people, etc. But nothing of this was known 
in the south of Europe, the existence of the continent was 
in time forgotten in the north, and it remained to be dis- 
covered over again. 

Changed Conditions in Europe. — By the fifteenth cen- 
tury Europe had gained a greater degree of civilized devel- 
opment. Its nations had become more strongly organized, 
its kings had gained more power and authority, its mer- 
chants and artisans were rising in importance, and its peo- 
ple were no longer helpless slaves of the lords. Peaceful 
enterprise was beginning to take the place of war. Human 
knowledge was growing, leai-ned men appeared outside the 
monasteries, and there arose a desire to learn more about 
the world. 

The Eastward Movement. — The vast continent of Asia, 
stretching thousands of miles to the east, was little known 
to the men of that age, though there had long been trade 
with its civiHzed nations. After the Crusades,^ which lasted 
from about 1100 to 1300, this trade grew more active. 
Caravans crossed the deserts, bringing the shawls, silks, 
muslins, spices, and pearls of Persia and India to Alexan- 
dria in Egypt and to the ports of the Black Sea. Thence 
merchant vessels bore them to Venice, Genoa, and other 
European ports. 

Marco Polo. — Travellers also made their way through 
Asia. The chief of these was Marco Polo, a Venetian, who 

^ The Crusades were great military expeditions from Europe to Asia 
to defend the rights of Christian pilgrims in Palestine and recover the 
Holy Land from the Mohammedans. Thousands of men perished in 
these efforts, but Jerusalem and Palestine were not recovered. The 
name "crusaders" was given to these warriors because they wore the 
sign of the cross. 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 15 

journeyed overland through Central Asia to China, where 
he remained for many years, returning in 1295. His ad- 
ventures vv^ere described in a book which was full of in- 
formation of great interest to the people of Europe. In 
this book was given the first account of the island country 
of Cipango, or Japan, which has lately' become so impor- 
tant. The story told by Marco Polo went far to arouse an 
interest in the discovery of new countries.^ 

The Turks. — In 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople 
and put an end to the Asiatic commerce of Genoa, whose 
fleets were obliged to pass that city on their way to the 
Black Sea. The ships of Venice traded with Alexandria, 
and their commerce continued longer. But it also was at 
length brought to an end by the Turks, and the trade of 
Europe with Asia, which had existed for many centuries, 
was destroyed. 

New Routes of Commerce. — The luxuries obtained 
from Asia had now become necessary to the comfort of 
the people of Europe. Yet unless other trade routes could 



' Marco Polo was the son of Niccolb Polo, who with his brother 
Matteo made a journey through Asia between 1255 and 1269. They 
went again about 1272 with young Marco, who was the first European, 
to enter China, and who gained high favor with the Great Khan of 
Tartary. They returned to Venice in 1295, bringing great wealth in 
precious stones, but dressed in ragged clothes, which they had worn 
to prevent being robbed. They invited their friends and relatives, 
who had forgotten them, to a costly banquet, where they appeared in 
the richest garments. After the feast they ripped open their old 
clothes, and from them fell an untold wealth in diamonds, rubies, and 
other gems. They were quickly remembered after that. Marco was 
afterward taken prisoner in a battle with the Genoese and kept long 
in prison. While there he fold the story of his travels to a fellow- 
captive, who wrote it down. The book, when published, made a great 
sensation, and is still of much value. 



16 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

be discovered all this rich commerce would be lost. For- 
tunately, at that period navigators were growing more bold. 
The mariner's compass had been brought into use ; the 
astrolabe — an instrument for reckoning latitude — soon after 
was employed ; sailors no longer felt it necessary to creep 
along shore as of old, but began to venture daringly far 
from sight of land. The route to Asia by way of the Medi- 
terranean was closed against the ships of Europe. Could 
not a new route be found by way of the great ocean of the 
west ? 

Portuguese Enterprise. — Portugal was one of the most 
enterprising nations of that period. It was not content to 
let the cities of Italy enjoy all the trade of Asia, and had 
conceived the idea that India might be reached by sailing 
around the continent of Africa. This enterprise began in 
1418, under. King Henry, known as Henry the Navigator. 
Step by step the ships of Portugal made their way down 
the African coast. Madeira, the Azores, and other islands 
were discovered, but it was not until 1471 that a Portuguese 
captain reached and crossed the equator. It had been 
supposed that Africa extended no farther south ; but its 
coast was found to stretch still southward, and the navigators 
of Portugal began to lose heart.^ 



^ The southern cape of Africa was finally reached by Bartholomew 
Diaz in 1487. He called it the Cape of Storms, but the king renamed 
it the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497— after the discovery of America— 
Vasco da Gama sailed round this cape and entered the Indian Ocean 
up which he passed northward to Hindustan. He returned in the 
summer of 1499 with a cargo of the spices, silks, jewels, and other 
rich products of that land of wealth. This was the beginning of a 
valuable Portuguese commerce with the ?]ast. Bartholomew Colum- 
bus, the younger brother of the great discoverer, accompanied Diaz on 
his voyage. 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 17 

Christopher Columbus. — Among the enterprising spirits 
of that age was one. who has made himself famous for all 
time. This was the celebrated Christopher Columbus [Italian 
name Cristoforo Colombo {cris-t6f o-ro Gd-lbm'bo)^ Spanish 
name Cristoval Colon {cris-to'vGl c^-ldn'y]. He was a native 
of Genoa, Italy, where he was born about 1435, or per- 
haps several years later, the date of his birth being uncer- 
tain. He became a sailor at the age of fourteen, and for 
years was engaged in commerce and adventure. He sailed 
with several Portuguese expeditions down the coast of 
Africa, and may have sailed as far north as Iceland. He 
says, " In 1477 I navigated one hundred leagues beyond 
Thule" (supposed to be Iceland). 

A New Idea. — Columbus was a thinker and student. 
In common with the best geographers of that century, he 
believed that the earth was round, and advanced the prop- 
osition that by sailing due west across the ocean India 
might be reached. To most of the people then living this 
seemed an incredible absurdity. To reach the east by sail- 
ing to the west ! It appeared the talk of a madman. The 
general belief was that the earth was flat and inhabited on 
its upper side only. But Columbus was persistent in his 
belief,^ though he had no conception of the real size of the 
earth. He imagined that a few thousand miles would bring 
him to the shores of Asia. Had he dreamed of the vast 
width of space that lay between Europe and Asia in this 

' Columbus had spent some time in the island of Madeira, and there 
had been told of strange objects seen by sailors. These included pieces 
of carved wood, seeds of unknown plants, canes long enough to hold 
four quarts of wine between their joints, and, more striking still, the 
bodies of two men, differing in face and color from the people of 
Europe. Westerly winds had brought these ashore, and they seemed 
to come from lands to the west. 

2 



18 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

direction he might have been afraid to venture upon such 
mighty seas. 

Columbus Seeks Aid. — The Genoese adventurer had a 
very difficult task before him. He had no money himself, 
and he spent many years of his life in trying to induce gov- 
ernments to aid his proposed enterprise. He first wished 
to go as the agent of his native city, Genoa, but the authori- 
ties rejected his plan as folly or madness. He then tried 
Portugal, where he spent years in vain endeavor.' 

Columbus in Spain. — Columbus left Portugal in 1484 
and proceeded to Spain, which country was then governed 
by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, 
who were at war with the Moors, a peo- 
ple who had once held nearly the whole 
of Spain. For seven years he begged 
persistently for aid, but in vain. He 
was looked upon as a visionary, and the 
very boys in the street mocked hhii as 
a lunatic. At length he w-as permitted 
to lay his plans before a committee of 

Christopher Columbus , . ,. 

learned men, but only to have them ridi- 
culed, the council dismissing him as a foolish enthusiast.'^ 

' The Portuguese king was intelligent, and at length listened favor- 
ably to the statements of Columbus, though his geographers told him 
that the scheme was visionary. King John, who still thought it worth 
trying, but did not wish to give Columbus the high reward he de- 
manded in case of success, played the traitor to him, and secretly sent 
out a vessel to try the westward route, giving the captain the charts of 
Columbus as guides. The cajjtain sailed for a few days westward into 
the unknown ocean, and then, frightened by stormy weather and what 
seemed an endless waste of waters, returned and laughed to scorn the 
scheme of the adventurer. 

' They could not be made to believe that the earth was round. " Do 
you mean to tell us, ' ' they asked, ' ' that on the other side the rain falls 




THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 19 

Other Appeals for Aid. — Columbus before this had sent 
his brother Bartholomew to England to seek for aid. He 
now himself set out for France, but stopped at the convent 
of La Rabida/ near the little town of Palos, where he was 
forced to beg bread for himself and his little son, who ac- 
companied him. Here he found a friend in the prior, who 
had influence with Queen Isabella, and wrote to her. 
Columbus was called back to the court, but again met with 
disappointment, and once more set out for France. He' 
had not gone far when a messenger recalled him. Some 
of his friends had pleaded his cause with the queen, and 
she became so earnest in his behalf that it is said she offered 
to pledge her jewels to raise the money. 

The Vessels Supplied. — The queen did not need to 
pledge her jewels. There was money enough in the treas- 
ury, despite the cost of the war. The part of the money 
which Columbus was to supply was advanced by some 
friends at Palos. But though ships were ready, crews were 
not easily to be had. Sailors were ignorant and supersti- 
tious. They feared the perils of unknown seas. But at 
length three small vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and 
the Niila (nen'yah), were obtained, with crews to man them. 

upward and men walk with their heads downward ? If the earth were 
round, as you say, your ships, in going west, would sail down a curved 
surface, and would have to sail up-hill to return to Spain. The torrid 
zone, through which you must pass, is a region of fire, where the very 
waters boil. And who can say what dense fogs, what frightful mon- 
sters, what unimagined terrors exist in these unknown seas?" 

^ A fac-simile of the La Rabida convent, and also one of the Santa 
Maria, the flag-ship of Columbus in his famous voyage, were shown at 
the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893. These con- 
tained many ancient relics, and were among the most attractive features 
of the fair. The vessel was one in which few men would venture to 
cross the ocean to-day. 



20 DISCOVERY AND INHABITAiNTS OF AMERICA. 

Only the largest of these, the Santa Maria, of about one 
hundred tons burden, had a complete deck. The others 
were open amidships. The crews consisted of ninety sailors, 
and there were also thirty gentlemen adventurers and 
priests. With this small fleet, on the 3d of August, 1492, 
Columbus set sail from Palos, Spain, on the most merhorable 
voyage that had ever been undertaken. 

The Voyage. — The fleet sailed first to the Canary Islands. 
One of the vessels was injured on the way, and the expedi- 
tion was detained there a month for repairs. On the 6th 
of September they again sailed boldly into the " Sea of 
Darkness," as the Atlantic was then commonly called. As 
the land faded from the eyes of the sailors some of them 
burst into tears, and the boldest were full of superstitious 
fears. What monstrous creatures they would meet in those 
untried waters, what black fogs or terrifying visions they 
would encounter, none could tell. They might glide down 
a watery curve up which no ship could climb again. They 
might reach the edge of the earth's surface and plunge to 
swift destruction. The wind which carried them onward 
blew steadily to the west. Could they return against this 
persistent wind ? The unknown lay before them, and the 
unknown is the abode of terrors. 

New DiflBculties. — As they went on the compass to which 
they trusted for safety ceased to point directly to the north. ^ 
Here was a new cause for fear. Ten days after leaving the 
Canary Islands they entered what is now known as the 

^ It has long been known that the needle of the compass does not 
always point directly north. The magnetic pole is hundreds of miles 
away from the north pole, and only where the two poles are in a line 
does the needle point north. In other places it points east or west of 
north. In Spain at that day the needle pointed nearly due north, and 
hence the sailors were alarmed to see it deviate. 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 



21 



Sargasso Sea. Here were vast tracts of sea-weed which 
fihed them with fresh terror, for they seemed to be in a 
shahow sea, in which the vessels might be wrecked on bars 
or plmige deep into mud-banks.' 

Signs of Land. — Cokmibus alone kept firm of heart, and 
did his utmost to cheer up his despondent followers. He 
shrewdly deceived them 
as to the distance they 
had gone. As they went 
on, signs of land ap- 
peared. Pehcans and 
other birds were seen. 
The clouds looked" like 
distant shores. But as 
day by day passed with- 
out land appearing the 
crews lost all hope, and 
secret plans were made 
to throw their leader 
overboard and sail for 
home again. 

Fortunately, the signs 
of land grew more de- 
cided. A branch with 
fresh berries was seen 
floating by. A carved 

stick was picked up from the waters. Other floating objects 
were observed. Hope replaced despair. At length, about 
ten o'clock on the evening of October 11, 1492, Columbus 




The Ships of Columbus. 



' The Sargasso Sea is now known to be due to great currents in the 
Atlantic, which here whirl round in a vast circle and carry to this 
point floating sea-weed from far-distant waters. The weed remains 
alive and many small ocean animals dwell in its midst. 



22 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

saw a distant light, which moved as if it were carried. At 
two o'clock on the following morning the glad cry of 
" Land !" came from one of the other vessels. A sailor had 
seen land in the clear moonlight. When day broke the joyful 
mariners beheld close before them a low, green shore, on 
which the sunlight gleamed like the beacon light of hope. 
The voyage was at an end. A new world lay before their 
eyes. 

On Shore in the New "World. — On the morning of Fri- 
day, the 12th of October, 1492, the happy discoverer set 
foot on the shores of the new land. He was clad in a 
full suit of armor, and bore in his hand the royal ban- 
ner of Spain. The brothers Pinzon ( pen-thon'), captains of 
the other vessels, bore banners of the green cross, a de- 
vice of his own. Kneeling on the shore, he kissed the 
ground with tears of joy, while the mutinous members 
of the crews fell weeping at his feet and humbly begged 
his pardon. 

Rising, he took possession of the land in the name of the 
monarchs of Spain, and gave it the name of San Salvador.' 
It was an island he had discovered, as he soon learned. It 
was inhabited by a gentle-faced people, of reddish com- 
plexion, and unlike any men Columbus had seen in his 
many voyages. They had a few gold ornaments, and were 
asked by signs where gold was to be found. In reply they 
pointed to the southward. The simple islanders supposed 
the ships to be great white-winged birds, and believed that 
their white-faced visitors had come from heaven. 

The Voyage Continued. — Leaving San Salvador, the fleet 

^ The natives called this island Guanahani {gwfi-nH-hu'ne). It was 
one of the group of the Bahamas, but it is not sure which. Most prob- 
ably it was the one now known as Watling's Island. 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 23 

sailed southward, passing other islands, and soon reaching 
the great islands of Cuba and Hayti. On the latter island, 
which Columbus named Hispaniola, the Santa Maria was 
wrecked. Here Columbus built a fort and planted a small 
colony, and then set sail for Spain. 

The Belief of Columbus. — Columbus never dreamed 
that he had discovered a new continent. He believed that 
it was Asia he had reached. The islands he thought to be 
either those of Japan or others off the coast of India. Cuba 
he supposed to be the mainland of India. He therefore 
called the dark-skinned natives Indians. By this name, 
which is based on a wrong conception, they are still known. 
He asked everywhere for the spices, jewels, and gold of 
Asia, and was disappointed in finding none. He sent par- 
ties into the interior, and was astonished that no trace of 
the cities or civiHzation of Asia could be discovered. He 
sent an expedition into Cuba to visit a great chief, whom 
he supposed to be the King or Khan of Tartary. To the 
day of his death he believed that it was Asia he had 
reached. 

Reception of Columbus in Spain. — Columbus reached 
the port of Palos on his return on the 15th of March, 1493. 
The news of his discovery spread rapidly through the land, 
and was hailed everywhere with joy. Wherever he ap- 
peared exulting crowds gathered and the bells were loudly 
rung. His journey to Barcelona, where the court then 
was, seemed like a triumphal procession. The king and 
queen received him with the highest honor, and listened in 
wonder to the story of his discoveries. He displayed to 
them the gold, the oew plants, the unknown birds and 
beasts, the curious weapons and utensils, of the new- 
discovered country, and nine of the natives whom he had 
brought to Spain. In the end the monarchs fell on their 



2} DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

knees and thanked God for the honor conferred upon their 
kingdom by this great achievement. 

Further Honors. — Columbus was given the title of Don 
and treated as a grandee of Spain. He rode in the streets 
at the king's side. On sea he ranked as admiral, and in 
the new world he was the king's viceroy, and was to receive 
a tenth of all the gold, precious stones, and other valuables 
found and an eighth of all the profit by trade. Thus ended the 
famous enterprise through which a new continent was discov- 
ered and great glory and wealth were conferred upon Spain.' 

' The remainder of the story of Columbus has no immediate con- 
nection with the United States, and may therefore be disposed of in a 
note. He made three more voyages to this country. In the second 
(1493-96) he discovered many more islands. He started on a third in 
1498. In this he discovered the mainland of South America and the 
mouth of the great Orinoco River. Meanwhile, his government of the 
colonies had made him many enemies. He also offended the king and 
queen by sending five ship-loads of Indians to Spain to be sold as 
slaves. They were all sent back, and a new governor was sent to His- 
paniola. This man seized Columbus and his two brothers and sent 
them in irons to Spain. On his ajrival in that country great indigna- 
tion was aroused by the outrage, the offending governor was removed, 
and the property of Columbus restored. His office of viceroy was not 
restored. He always afterward kept hanging in his room the fetters 
which had been placed on his limbs, and requested that they should be 
buried with him. He sailed on a fourth voyage in 1502, in which he 
traversed the Caribbean Sea and sailed far along the coast of Honduras. 
He still hoped to find the riches of India, but in vain. He returned 
to Spain in 1504, where he was treated with shameful neglect and 
reduced to poverty. He died May 20, 1506. He was first buried at 
Valladolid, but his body was removed in 1513 to Seville, and in 1536 
to the city of San Domingo in Hayti. In 1796 what were supposed to 
be his remains were taken to Havana. This was probably a mistake, 
for in 1877 a. leaden coffin containing human bones was found under 
the Cathedral of San Domingo, which bore the inscription in Spanish, 
"Illustrious and renowned man, Christopher Columbus." 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 25 

Enslavement of the Natives. — The feeling of displeasure 
which Queen Isabella displayed when Columbus sent Indians 
as slaves to Spain was not shared by the Spanish colonists. 
The natives were everywhere reduced to slavery, and were 
treated with such barbarity that they rapidly perished. In 
time they all disappeared from the islands' which had so 
long been their own, and negro slaves were brought from 
Africa to take their place. 

Naming- the Continent. — Many adventurers made their 
way to the new land which Columbus had discovered. 
One of the earliest of these was an Italian named Amerigo 
Vespucci {ah-md-rt' go ves-poot'che), a native of Florence 
in the service of Spain, who made several voyages to this 
country, and published an account of his observations in 
1504. This was used in 1507 by a German geographer 
named Martin Waldseemiiller in a little book called "An In- 
troduction to Geography." In it was this sentence : "And 
the fourth part of the world having been discovered by 
Amerigo or Americus, we may call it Amerige, or America."^ 

Discovery of North America. — Columbus was not the 
first to discover the continent of America. He first saw 
the mainland of South America in 1498. That of North 

^ The name by which these islands are known, the West Indies, 
arose from the mistaken idea of Columbus that they formed part of 
India in Asia. 

^ Vespucci had sailed far south along the coast of Brazil, and it was 
thought that, while Columbus had discovered Asia, he had discovered 
a continent south of Asia. It had long been supposed that there was 
such a continent, which was known as the " fourth part of the world." 
Thus it was to Brazil that the name America was first given. After- 
ward it was applied to all South America. Finally it became the 
name of the northern continent also. Thus without any intention 
Columbus was deprived of the honor of giving his name io the great 
continent he had discovered. 



26 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

America had been seen the year before. In 1496, John 
Cabot, an Italian residing in Bristol, England, proposed a 
voyage to the new-discovered country. He was aided and 
encouraged in this by Henry VII., King of England, and set 
sail westward in May, 1497. He first saw land on June 24 
of that year. Where this land was we do not know. 
Some think it was Labrador, others Cape Breton Island, 
He sailed hundreds of miles along the coast, his purpose 
being to find a northern passage to Asia. He discovered 
instead a new continent. 

Sebastian Cabot's "Voyage. — The next year his son 
Sebastian, who had accompanied his father, sailed to 
America with several ships, and traced the coast for a long 
distance. He* reached the region of icebergs on the north, 
and sailed south as far as Cape Hatteras, or perhaps to 
a still lower latitude. He laid claim to all the land dis- 
covered for Henry VII. of England.^ 

Honors to the Gabots. — The Cabots gained great honor, 
but little profit, from their discovery. John Cabot went 
about dressed in silk, and was known as the " Great 
Admiral." Sebastian was also much honored, and was 
called " The Great Seaman." He lived to become an 
active explorer, and made afterward several important 
voyages of discovery in the service of Spain. 

The Line of Demarcation. — Pope Alexander VI., in 
1494, had undertaken to divide the new-discovered lands 

' The account of the voyages of the Cabots is very obscure. Some 
writers say that John Cabot went with his son in the second voyage ; 
others say that he died before it started. Just what lands they dis- 
covered is equally doubtful. Sebastian Cabot speaks of having seen 
savages dressed in skins, stags larger than those in England, and bears 
that cauglit fish with their claws, while he met with codfish in su'^h 
numbers that they checked the speed of his ships. 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 27 

between Spain and Portugal. A meridian line three hun- 
dred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands 
was selected, and it was declared that all heathen lands 
discovered east of this " hne of demarcation" should be- 
long to Portugal ; all those west of it to Spain. It must 
be said, however, that the other nations paid no attention 
whatever to this line, though from it Portugal laid claim 
to Brazil. 

Discovery of the Pacific. — Two further important steps 
of discovery were made in the south. In the year 1513 
Balboa, a Spanish adventurer, crossed the Isthmus of 
Panama, in search of a great body of water which the 
natives told him could be seen from the tops of the moun- 
tains. After enduring severe hardships he reached the 
summit of the ridge, and saw before his eyes a mighty 
outreach of waters. He got to the western shore after 
days of further hardship, and, wading into the water with 
a sword in one hand and a banner in the other, he laid 
claim to that great ocean and all its bordering countries 
for the sovereigns of Spain. He named it the South Sea. 
To-day, of all this extensive claim, not a square foot of 
land belongs to Spain. 

The Voyage of Magellan. — In 1519, Ferdinand Magel- 
lan, a Portuguese in command of five Spanish ships, sailed 
from Spain with the hope of finding a route to Asia by way 
of the southwest. He discovered the strait since known 
by his name, south of the mainland of South America, 
sailed through it, and entered the vast ocean which Bal- 
boa had seen. He found it free from storms, and in con- 
sequence named it the Pacific Ocean. He crossed this vast 
ocean, and accomplished what Columbus had set out to do, 
reaching Asia by sailing west. He was killed by savages in 
the Philippine Islands, but one of his ships sailed around 



28 



PISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 



the Cape of Good Hope and reached Spain in 1522.* This 
was the first circumnavigation of the globe. Now for the 
first time was it learned what Columbus had really done. 
Instead of reaching the shores of Asia, he had discovered 
a great new continent which lay in the vast seas between. 
In consequence, it is often spoken of as the New World. 



2. THE INDIANS, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND 
CUSTOMS. 

The Red Men. — It is common to speak of the " discovery 
of America,'' but by this we mean only its discovery by 
the civilized people of Europe. It had 
been discovered, or at least peopled, by 
men long before, no one knows how 
long, nor whence these people came. 
Columbus named them " Indians," 
thinking them to be inhabitants of 
India, in Asia. They are also fre- 
quently called " red men," for they 
,were of a reddish or cinnamon color. 
They had coarse liair, black and 
straight, small black eyes, and but 
little beard. Their cheek-bones were 
high and their noses prominent. In these and other re- 
spects they differed from the people of Europe. 

Character of the Red Men. — The Indians occupied the 
whole of North and South America. They were not all 
alike" in appearance, and they differed greatly in customs 
and degree of development. The island people first seen 




Indian Chief. 



* The captain of this vessel was rewarded by the King of Spain with 
a coat of arms, on which was represented a globe with the motto, 
" You first sailed round me." 



THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 29 

by Columbus were gentle and peaceful. This was not the 
case with those on the mainland, most of whom were 
fierce and warlike. Many of them were in the savage 
state ; that is, they had only a few rude arts and little 
organization. Others were in what is known as the barba- 
rian state, while still others, like those of Mexico and Peru, 
had some degree of civilization, and possessed many arts 
and industries. 

The Savage and Barbarian Indians. — The savage In- 
dians lived almost entirely by hunting and fishing, and had 
no fixed places of habitation, but roamed 
from place to place with their tent-shaped 
wigwams or other simple dwellings. They 
had few utensils and little or no agriculture. 
Those who dwelt in the eastern half of this 
country were barbarians. They had fixed 
homes, living in villages, and cultivating the 
fields to some extent, though they were active 
hunters also. They tilled the ground with 

Indian Woman. 

hoes, which were made of stone, bone, or 
other hard substance, attached to a stick. The principal 
plants grown by them were maize, or " Indian-corn," 
pumpkins, squashes, beans, and tobacco.^ 

Dwellings. — The dwellings of the Indians differed 
greatly in character. Some tribes dwelt in wigwams, 
or round huts with a framework of upright poles, which 
were bent inward and fastened together at the top. These 
were covered with the skins of animals, bark, or woven 

^ The Iroquois tribes of Central New York had a more developed 
agriculture. The French, who invaded their country in 1696, found 
fields of maize which extended a league from the villages. General 
Sullivan, in his invasion in 1779, found large apple and peacL 
orchards, and abundant stores of corn, beans, and squashes. 




30 



DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 




Indian Pottkky. 



mats. Their fires were made in clay or stone pits in the 
floor, and the smoke escaped through a hole in the roof. 
Various other forms of dwellings were used. The Iroquois 
tribes had houses several hundred feet long, and divided 
into many apartments or residences 
by partitions. They were made of 
framework covered with bark, and 
sometimes held from thirty to fifty 
families. Some of the Southern In- 
dians had circular dweUings with par- 
titions made of mats and running 
from the outer wall to the centre. 
Each ai)artnient thus made was the home of a family. 

Furniture and Utensils. — The dwellings had little furni- 
ture, the Indians living mostly in the open air. Mats and 
skins served for bedding and the ground usually for seats 
and tables. For cooking purposes some tribes used wooden 
vessels, hollowed out by burning and scraping. They filled 
these vessels with water and threw 
in stones heated in their fires till 
the water boiled. Then the food 
was dropped in to cook in the boil- 
ing water. Baskets made of willow, 
very closely woven, were used in 
the same way. Some tribes had 
vessels of earthenware, others of 
hollowed out soapstone. 

Clothing-. — The winter clothing 
of the red men was mostly made 

of deer-skin. In summer they wore very little clothing. 
On their feet they wore moccasins, or shoes made of buck- 
•skin, which were very soft and pliable and enabled them to 
walk noiselessly. Some tribes wove coarse cloth, out of 




Indian Woman Weaving, 



THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 31 

which their clothing was made. They often wore a head- 
dress of feathers. Beads made from sea-shells, called 
wampum, were worn as ornaments and also used as 
money. It was their custom when engaged in war to 
paint their faces in stripes and spots of red and other 
colors. 

Tools. — Their tools were made of stone, chipped or 
rubbed to the desired shape, or of bone, horn, wood, or 
shell. They consisted of stone axes, hoes, and other im- 
plements for domestic use, scrapers to prepare skins for 
use, bone needles, wooden paddles for their canoes, and 
some other simple implements. The only metal they pos- 
sessed was copper, which they obtained from mines in the 
lake region and hammered into shape. It was principally 
used for ornamental purposes. Pipes were articles in 
common use. These were usually made of stone, hollowed 
out and pierced with a hole for the smoke to pass through, 
and were often curiously and skilfully carved. 

Weapons. — Their weapons were bows and arrows, 
which were pointed with flint or other hard substance ; 
tomahawks, or 
hatchets, of 
sharp-edged 

flint with wood- j^^j^^ B^,,. ^^^ ^^^^^, 

en handles ; and 

war-clubs of hard and heavy wood. These native weapons 
proved of little service against the weapons of the white 
men, and were thrown aside as soon as the Indians were 
able to trade furs for knives and hatchets of iron, guns, and 
ammunition. It is said that some of them thought that 
powder was a sort of seed, and planted in the ground the 
first they obtained, hoping to raise a crop of this i7sefu] 
plant. 




32 



DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 




Modes of Travel. — The Indians possessed no horses nor 
beasts of burden. The horse, ox, sheep, and pig, were not 
known in this country till brought here by the 
whites. They had the bison, or buffalo, but 
used it only for food. In winter they travelled 
on snow-shoes, — frames of wood covered with 
hide, so long and wide that they would not 
sink into the snow. In summer they traversed 
forests and plains on their noiseless moccasins. 
The canoe was much used for summer travel. 
This was a very light boat, its strong fram.e 
being covered with the thin and flexible bark 
of the birch-tree. It was pointed at both ends 
and was forced through the water by the aid 
of a paddle. Unlike the rower, tlie canoe-man 
faced forward. 

Duties of Men and "Women. — The Indian 
man did no work. Hunting and fighting were 
his only duties, and all labor in the village w^as left to the 
women, who planted and hoed the corn, made the deer- 
skin clothing, and cooked the food. Fire was produced by 
twirling the end of a stick rapidly on a dry piece of wood. 
The men made their weapons, indulged in dances and 
mimic battles, and were skilled in the arts of hunting and 
war. It was their custom to pull out all their hair except 
a lock on the crown of the head. This, called the scalp- 
lock, was left in order that an enemy, if able to kill the 
warrior in battle, might pluck off his scalp as a trophy of 
victory. 

Methods of "Warfare. — In war the Indians were fierce 
and cruel. They did not favor open fighting, but preferred 
to practise stratagem. It was their habit to steal upon 
their enemies through the forest, creeping or lying in wait. 



Indian Quiver 
AND Bow-Case. 




THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 83 

and seeking to take them by surprise. They became re- 
markably skilful in following a trail, — that is, in tracing 
the passage of men or animals by the faint 
marks of their foot-prints, by broken leaves 
and twigs, and other marks only visible to 
well-trained eyes. They were equally skil- 
ful in concealing their own trails. 

Ferocity in War. — The Indians had no 
mercy on their foes. They often sought to 
take prisoners, but only that they might put 
them to death by torture. It was their de- 
light to make the captives suffer the utmost an Indian shield 
pain, they being tortured as they were slowly 
burned to death. The prisoner, on the other hand, felt 
a pride in bearing pain without flinching, and treated his 
foes with contempt and derision. He sometimes pro- 
voked them by his insults to kill him without further 
torture. In some cases a prisoner escaped death by being 
adopted into the tribe, by a mother who had lost her son, 
or otherwise. 

Indians of the South. — The Indian tribes of Florida and 
the Gulf region generally were more advanced than those 
farther north. They had compact, well-built villages and 
paid much more attention to agriculture, and had also a 
superior system of government and more developed religious 
ideas. The products of the field and the hunt were public 
property, and were kept in a common storehouse to be dis- 
tributed as needed. This was the system now known as 
Communism. 

Number of Indians. — The Indians were not many in 
number. There may have been not more than two hun- 
dred thousand of them in all the country east of the Mis- 
sissippi. People who live by hunting cannot be numerous, 

3 




34 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

since a wide space of hunting-ground is needed for tlie 
support of each family. Some writers beheve that there 

are as many Indians 
in the United States 
to-day as there were 
four hundred years 
ago, though they oc- 
cupy a very much 
smaller space. 

Religious Beliefs. 
— The Indians seem 
to have believed in 
a Great Spirit, all-wise, good, and powerful. Some writers, 
however, think that they obtained this idea of a Supreme 
God from the white men. They believed also in inferior 
spirits, good and bad, and in happy hunting-grounds to 
which the spirits of the brave would pass. The only priest 
was the medicine-man, who pretended to have power over 
evil spirits by aid of sorcery and magic. They had no 
idol worship. Some of the Southern tribes worshipped 
the sun, and had temples and religious ceremonies. Be- 
sides the medicine-man or conjurer, these had a high-priest 
and a series of inferior priests of the sun. They kept up 
a sacred fire in the temple, which was not allowed to go 
out. 

Groups or Families of Indians. — There were several 
families or unlike groups of Indians, differing in language 
and in degree of civilization. The Algonquin family of the 
North extended from the Atlantic to and beyond the Missis- 
sippi. West of it lay the Dakota and other families. The 
Iroquois family dwelt principally in New York. The Mas- 
koki or Mobiliaii family lay south of Tennessee, and ex- 
tended from the Mississippi River into Florida. 



THE INDIANS, CHARACTERTSTICS AND CUSTOMS. 35 

Org-anization. — Each of these families was divided into 
tribes, often hostile to each other. Thus, the Iroquois had 
five tribes in central New York and some other tribes else- 
where. At a later date they had six tribes in New York, 
and became known as the Six Tribes. Each tribe had its 
fixed name, such as Seneca, Mohawk, etc: The tribes 
were divided up into smaller bodies or clans, each of which 
was beheved to be descended from a single ancestor. 
Among the Iroquois all the members of a clan lived in one 
of the great houses above described or in several of these 
grouped together. The houses and food belonged to the 
clan, weapons and ornaments being the only private prop- 
erty. Each clan had its own religious ceremonies, and was 
known by a special name, such as Bear, Wolf, Turtle, etc. 
The animal after which the clan was named was held sa- 
cred, and carved images of it, called totems, formed the 
clan emblem. The Indians believed that their earliest an- 
cestor was the spirit of this animal, which watched over 
and protected them. 

Government. — A tribe might be made up of from three 
or four to twenty or more clans, all speaking the same lan- 
guage and without any distinction of rank. Each clan was 
governed by a sachem or civil magistrate. Each might also 
have a number of war chiefs, who had no power but that 
of leading in war. These officers were elected, and all 
could vote, women as well as men. A council of the sa- 
chems governed the tribe and decided all important ques- 
tions. The Iroquois tribes were united into a confederacy, 
in which a council of the principal chiefs and sachems 
decided questions of war, and which enabled them to act 
together against their enemies. 

Wampum Records. — The Indians could not write, though 
they could make pictures that served as a kind of writing. 



36 



DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 



Belts of wampum or shell beads were also used as records. 
The record of the treaty with William Penn was kept by 
such a belt, which had on it a picture of an Indian and a 
white man clasping hands/ The arrangement and color 




Penn Trkaty WAMmi Bei.t. 

of the beads had their meaning, and the knowledge of what 
was done at any council was thus kept. 

Language. — Each family of Indians had its own language 
and each tribe its own dialect. Indian speech differs from 
that of the natives of Europe and Asia, and is looked upon 
as a separate family of language. Its special peculiarity is 
that a single word is often equal to a whole sentence in 
English. An Indian can say in one long word what we 
may need ten or twenty short words to express. 

The Indians of To-day. — The wars of the Indians are 
nearly or quite at an end. They have been forced to keep 
peace, and most of them have been settled on tracts of land 
called " reservations," where they are looked after and to 
some extent fed by the whites. Others, in the Indian Ter- 
ritory, have civilized governments of their own. They are 
gradually taking up the habits and industries of civilization, 
and are increasing in numbers. 

The Mound-Builders. — Throughout the valley of the 
Ohio and part of that of the Mississippi, and in the Gulf 

' This interesting record, or example of Indian picture-writing, is 
still in existence, being among the treasures gathered by the Historical 
Society of Pennsylvania, in whose rooms it may be seen. 



THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 37 




Indian Stone Implements. 



States, have been found traces of the eariier inhabitants of 
this country. Great numbers of mounds or artificial hills 
exist in this region. Some 
of them are only a few feet 
wide and high, others are 
very large. One of them, in 
Illinois, opposite St. Louis, is 
ninety feet high and covers 
eight acres of ground. There 

are many thousands of mounds in Ohio alone, most of 
which seem to have been used for burial, while others were 
probably fortifications and village enclosures. One en- 
closure at Newark, Ohio, has over two miles of earth ridge 
or embankment, some of it twenty feet high. Some of 
these earth mounds are curious and interesting, as they 
represent men or animals. One in Ohio represents a ser- 
pent one thousand feet long. Another is much like the 
elephant in form. These great images may have indicated 
the totems of tribes, while the very high mounds may have 
been crowned with temples. 

Contents of the Mounds. — More than two thousand of 
the small mounds have been opened and very many relics 

taken from them. These in- 
clude tools and weapons of 
stone, water- jugs, kettles, 
carved stone pipes, and many 
other objects. Pieces of cop- 
per are found, and this metal 
seems to have been mined 
near Lake Superior. It was 
not melted, but was shaped by hammering. 

Who -were the Mound-Builders ? — It was long supposed 
that the Mound-Builders were a separate race, who had 




Indian Implements of Shell. 



38 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

been driven out or destroyed by more barbarous tribes. It 
is now believed that they were the ancestors of the present 
Indians. The Indians of the South, when first known, had 
earth mounds still in use, on the larger of which temples 
and council-houses were built. These Indians had a higher 
organization than those of the North, and were governed 
by a Mico, or head chief, who had almost despotic power. 
They had a head war chief, a high-priest, and other officials. 
The Natchez tribe, on the Mississippi, were still more ad- 
vanced. These tribes were probably the descendants of 
the Mound-Builders, who may have been forced southward 
by more savage invaders from the north or west. 

The Pueblo Indians. — The Indians of the Rocky Mountain 
and Pacific region differed greatly in character from those 
of the East. Some of them, like the Digger Indians of Cali- 
fornia, were in a state of great degradation. Others, known 
as Flatheads, had the habit of flattening their skulls while 
young. The Apaches and some other tribes were very fierce 
and cruel. The most interesting of them all were the Pueblo 
Indians of New Mexico and Arizona. These built great 
houses of sun-dried bricks or flat stones, which are four or 
five stories high and large enough to hold a whole tribe. 
They are still inhabited, and the largest of them can accom- 
modate three thousand persons. These great dwellings are 
called " pueblos." They have no doors or windows, but 
are entered from holes in the roof reached by ladders. Each 
upper story is smaller than those below, and they rise one 
above another like great steps. Some of these buildings 
stand on the tops of high and steep hills very difficult to 
chmb, on which they have been built as a protection against 
enemies. 

Pueblo Agriculture. — The Pueblo Indians lived by agri- 
culture, and raised lai^e crops of Indian-corn and other 



THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 39 

plants. As their country had little rain they had learned to 
irrigate it, making ditches and sluices by which the water 
of the rivers was spread over the land. They had no do- 
mestic animals, but the Pueblo Indians of to-day — the Mo- 




A Pueblo Habitatton. 

quis {md'kes) of Arizona and the Zuhis (zoon^yis) of New 
Mexico — keep sheep and other animals, which were intro- 
duced by the whites. The horse has also long been used 
by the Indians of the West, many of whom are very expert 
riders. 

The Cliff-Dwellers. — In Southern Colorado and other 
parts of the Southwest the country is cut into deep ravines 
by river action. The bottoms of many of these ravines are 
now dry and little or no rain falls in them, so that they are 
unfit for human habitation. They must formerly have been 
in a different state, for they seem to have been inhabited. 
On the steep sides of the ravines, often several hundred feet 



40 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 

high, deep crevices occur, and in these people formerly 
lived. They built stone dwellings in these narrow and 
lofty situations, where they could be reached only by a 
difficult climb up the cliffs. Some of them are now quite 
inaccessible. They were probably used as places of refuge 
from enemies, and food was grown in the ravines below. 
No food plants can now be cultivated in these barren ravmes, 
and the Cliff-Dwellers have long since disappeared. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 



r 1. Conditions in Europe about the year 1492. 



ERA OF 
DISCOVERY. 



2. Early discovery . 



o. The Northmen and their settle 

ments. 
h. The discovery of the contnient. 
c. Other voyages to Vinland. 
I- d. Accounts of first voyage. 



3. Changed conditions in Europe. 



4. Eastward movements 



a. Trade between Europe and Asia. 
I). Adventures of Marco Polo. 
c. Interference of the Turks. 



5. Seeking new routes for commerce. 

6. Portuguese enterprise. 



Christopher Columbus . 



S. Voyage of Columbus 



a. Birth and early history. 

b. His ideas of the earth. 

c. His appeals for aid. 
[ d. Assistance received. 

f a. New diflBculties. 

b. Hopeful signs. 

c. Discovery of land. 

(/. Continuation of voyage. 

t. Belief of Columbus as to new land 

/. Reception on his return to Spain. 

. (/. Further honors. 



9. How America was named. 

I a. The discovery of North America. 
b. Voyage of Sebastian Cabot, 
c. Honors to the Cabots. 

11. Attempt of Pope Alexander VI. to divide the new country. 

12. Further discoveries 



f a. By Balboa. 
I b. By Magellan. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 



fHE INDIANS. 



1. The red meu 



2. Condition of the In- 
dians 



3. Indian warfare .... 

4. Indians of the South. 

5. Numbers of the Indians, 

6. Religious beliefs. 

7. Organization of the In- 

dians 



8. The Mound-Builders 



9. The Pueblo Indians . 
10. The Cliff-Dwellers. 



a. Their personal appearance. 

b. Their character. 

c. Savage and barbarous tribes. 

a. Dwellings. 

b. Furniture and utensils. 

c. Clothing. 

rf. Tools and weapons. 

e. Modes of travel . 

/. Duties of men and women. 

( a. Strategy of the Indians. 
I b. Cruelty in war. 



a. Family groups, tribes, and clans. 
6. Government. 

c. Wampum records. 

d. Language. 

e. Modem Indians. 

n. Character of the mounds. 

b. Contents of the mounds. 

c. Who were the Mound-Builders? 

a. The Pueblo habitations. 

b. Pueblo agriculture. 



Note.— These outlines are intended simply as examples, and it is suggested thai 
pupils be required to make similar analyses of succeeding sections. Such exercise 
will be of great value if properly conducted. 



PART II. 
THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 



I. THE SPANISH EXPLORERS. 

The Enterprise of Spain and Portugal. — To-day Spain 
and Portugal are two of the most unenterprising nations of 
Europe. Four centuries ago they were the two most enter- 
prising. While England and France showed very little of 
the spirit of adventure, Portugal was busy in the effort to 
circumnavigate Africa, and afterward in developing its rich 
Eastern trade, and Spain was equally active in taking pos- 
session of the new-discovered continent of America. 

Spanish Exploration in the North. — But the Spanish 
adventurers were principally attracted to the gold-yielding 
lands of the south, and made few and tardy settlements in 
the territory of the present United States. There was 
little there to attract the cupidity of treasure-seekers, while 
the hostility of the natives brought nearly every expedition 
to a disastrous end. It is our purpose to tell the story, 
somewhat briefly, of these various Spanish efforts, as pre- 
liminary to the beginning of actual United States history. 

The Fountain of Youth. — The first of these Spanish 
ventures was made in 1513. There was a story extant 
that somewhere in Eastern Asia was a magical fountain, 
whose waters would give perpetual youth to whoever 
might drink of them. The Spaniards in Cuba still believed 
that they had reached Asia, and some statements of the 

41 



42 THE ERA OP EXPLORATION. 

Indians gave them the idea that this fountain of youth lay 
not far to the north. 

A Spaniard of Porto Rico named Juan Ponce de Leon 
[hwdn jpdn'thd da ld-6n'^ often called pons dS le'6n), eager 
to regain his lost youth, set sail to the north in 1513, and 
on Easter Sunday saw land, which he named " Tierra de 
Pascua Florida," equivalent to " Land of Flowery Easter." 
Perhaps the abundant flowers he saw had something to 
do with the name of Florida, which this country has ever 
since borne. De Leon was the first to land on the coast 
of the present United States, but the fountain he sought 
could not be found, and he returned an old man still. He 
came again in 1521 and tried to make a settlement in 
Florida. But he had not the Cuban Indians to deal with, 
;ind Avas attackied and mortally wounded. Death, instead 
of youth, was the meed of the old knight. 

De Ayllon's Enterprise. — Other navigators sailed still 
farther north, some of them with the hope of finding a 
passage through the continent to Asia, that discovered by 
Magellan being too far south. In 1520, Vasquez de Ayllon 
(vds'kPfh da xl-yon') sent an expedition to the Carolina coast, 
and in 1526 he attempted to found a settlement, which is 
supposed to have been on the James River, near the later 
site of Jamestown. Sickness and Indian hostility brought 
this enterprise to an end. 

Expedition of De Narvaez. — Mobile Bay had been en- 
tered by Spanish explorers, and the Indians thare found to 
wear ornaments of gold. This fact excited the cupidity of 
the Spaniards, who thought it possible that a kingdom rich 
as that of Mexico might be found in this region. In 1528, 
Panfilo de Narvaez {pdn'fl-lo da ndr-vd'Sth) sailed there 
with four ships and four hundred men. These adventurers, 
instead of gold, found only hunger, hardship, and death. 



rm SPANISH EXPLORERS. 43 

Hostile Indians assailed them, wide swamps and deep 
rivers lay in their path, food was scarce, and they were at 
length glad to embark on the Gulf of Mexico in boats of 
their own construction. Cabeza de Vaca, an officer of the 
expedition, discovered one of the mouths of the Mississippi 
River. Soon after they were wrecked on the coast of 
Texas, some of the men being drowned, and others cap- 
tured by the Indians. Four of these captives — Cabeza, two 
sailors, and a negro — had remarkable adventures. They 
were carried about by the Indians, made their way from 
tribe to tribe, and finally escaped westwardly, where they 
travelled over two thousand miles of unknown land. Fi- 
nally, eight years after their capture, they reached the 
Gulf of California, where they were rescued by Spaniards 
from Mexico. They were the only survivors of the expe- 
dition. 

De Soto's Expedition. — A second effort to discover an 
Indian empire north of the Gulf was made by Fernando 
de Soto, governor of Cuba, in 1539. Starting with nine 
ships, nearly six hundred men, and over two hundred 
horses, he landed at Tampa Bay, in Florida, and advanced 
thence very slowly, being constantly opposed by hostile 
Indians. For two years the adventurers made their way 
against unceasing difficulties, traversing more than fifteen 
hundred miles without finding riches or civilized peoples. 
In the spring of 1541 they reached the banks of the Missis- 
sippi, being the first white men to gaze on that mighty 
stream. ^ 

^ De Soto had been with Pizarro in Peru, and hoped to conquer as 
rich a realm in Florida. He had all the daring and cruelty of the 
Spanish conquerors, and took with him blood-hounds to hunt the In- 
dians and chains to fetter them. A drove of hogs was also taken, to 
insure a supply of fresh meat. The Indians taken were treated as 



44 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 

Crossing the broad flood, they journeyed for months up 
its western side, finding hardship and hunger, but no 
treasures. In May, 1542, they reached the Mississippi again 
at the mouth of Red River. Here De Soto died. He was 
buried at night in the bed of the great stream he had dis- 
covered, and the remnant of his men, building boats, made 
their way down the river and across the Gulf to the Spanish 
settlements in Mexico. Nearly half of them had died. The 
remainder were a miserable, half-naked, and half-starved 
band of disappointed adventurers. 

Explorations on the Pacific. — The Mexicans told their 
Spanish conquerors that most of their gold came from a 
land lying northwest of their country. Cortez, the con- 
queror of Mexico, sent several expeditions in that direction. 
California, as they named the country, was explored, but no 
gold found, its golden treasures being destined to lie un- 
touched until a much later day. In 1542, Cabrillo (M- 
breVyo) made a voyage along the coast of California. He 
died on the way, but his pilot explored the coast for a 
considerable distance northward. 

Coronado's Expedition. — Cabeza de Vaca, on reaching 
Mexico after his escape from the Indians, had much to tell 
about what he had seen and heard of in his long journey. 
Stories had been told the wanderers about the pueblo set- 
tlements to the north, magnified in imagination to the 
" seven cities of Cibola." A monk was sent to spy out the 
land, and came back reporting opulent cities, rich in gold 
and silver. Francisco de Coronado started north in 1540 to 
explore this country, with a large force of Spaniards and 



slaves or beasts of burden, and s}iot or maimed if they refused to aid 
their foes. Their villages were burned, their granaries plundered. 
As a result they were inveterately hostile. 



THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 45 

Indians. He visited the Moqui and Zufii pueblos, discov- 
ered ttie Grand Canon of the Colorado River, but found 
none of the wealth reported. He continued his journey 
perhaps as far north as the Platte River, in Nebraska. He 
returned to Mexico in 1542, disgusted, if not insane with 
disappointment, at the failure of his high hopes of treasure 
and conquest. 

The Spanish Possessions. — The Spaniards had thus ex- 
plored much of the territory of the United States. They laid 
claim to the whole of it. But their only actual possession in 
the East was the small settlement of St. Augustine, which they 
founded in Florida in 1565. In the West they had settle- 
ments in California and New Mexico. The latter territory 
was explored in 1582 by Espejo (^s-pd'ho), who founded 
Santa Fe, the second oldest town in the United States. 

2. THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 

The Newfoundland Fisheries. — The first display of 
French enterprise directed toward the new world was by 
the fishermen, not by the government, of France. The Ca- 
bots had reported immense shoals of codfish on the banks 
of Newfoundland. In a few years afterward the hardy 
fishermen of Brittany and Normandy, attracted by the 
promise of a rich harvest, crossed the ocean to these new 
fishing-grounds. Some of them sailed farther in and dis- 
covered an island which they named Cape Breton, and as 
early as 1506 John Denys entered and explored the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence. 

Early French Explorers. — The King of France knew 
little of what his fishermen were doing. Francis I., who 
became king in 1515, mocked at the claims of Spain and 
Portugal to possess all new lands east or west. " Show 



46 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 

me," he said, satirically, " that clause in the will of Father 
Adam which divides the earth between the Spanish and the 
Portuguese and excludes the French." ^ Verrazano (vdr- 
rd-tsd'no), a Florentine sailor in the French service, was 
sent out by Francis in 1524, and traced the coast north- 
ward from Cape Fear, North Carolina, to some point in 
New England. He probably entered the Hudson River 
and the harbor of Newport, He, like others, was seeking 
a passage to India, but concluded that none such existed. 

Cartier's Voyages. — Ten years passed before another 
effort was made. Then, in 1534, Jacques Cartier {zh&k cdr- 
tyd') sailed to America and entered and named the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence. He landed and took possession of the 
country in the name of the King of France. The next 
year he sailed up the St. Lawrence River as far as an 
Indian village named Hochelaga. This he named Montreal 
(Royal Mountain) from the lofty hill behind it. He called 
the whole country New France.^ 

The Huguenots in Florida. — The religious wars of 
France gave rise to the next attempt to found a colony. 
In 1562, Coligny (co-len-ye'), the great Protestant leader, 
sent out a body of Huguenot (French Protestant) colonists 
under Jean Ribault {^hdn re-bo'), who sailed to Florida, 
entered the St. John's River, and then went north to a 
harbor which he named Port Royal. This effort failed. 
The colonists, weary of the wilderness, and pining for 

' It is said that Baron de Lery, a French nobleman, tried to plant a 
colony on Sable Island in 1518. But hunger assailed him and his 
colonists, and they were glad to escape starvation by flight. 

^ Cartier returned in 1541 as an agent of the Lord of Roberval, who 
made an attempt to found a colony in Canada. This effort ended in 
failure in 1543. Religious wars in France hindered any further effort 
by the French for a half-century. 



THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 



47 



France, built a rude vessel and sailed for home. They 
were rescued from probable death by an English ship. 

In 1564 a second expedition, under Laudonniere {Id- 
ddn-yair'), landed on the St. John's River, and built a 
fort which they called Fort Carolina/ Ribault afterward 
brought out reinforcements. 

The Spanish Massacre. — This region was claimed by 
Spain, and as soon as news of the French settlement 




Fort San Marco, St. ArGUBXTNK. 



leached that country an expedition was sent out, under 
Pedro Menendez, a naval officer, with orders to drive the 
intruders off the land. Menendez landed in Florida in 



^ Laudonniere 's colonists suffered greatly. Food grew so scarce 
that they were obliged to eat sorrel, roots, pounded fish-bones, and 
roasted snakes. They traded their clothes with the Indians for fish, 
and found their sufferings treated with mockery by the savages. 



48 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 

1565, built a fort which he named St, Augustine, and then 
marched overland to the French colony, which he over- 
came by surprise and treachery. Obtaining possession of 
the fort, he murdered every soul in it, — men, women, and 
children. A few had escaped to the woods, and these, 
after strange adventures, got back to France. 

Ribault had meanwhile set sail with a force to attack the 
Spanish, but his fleet was wrecked in a tempest, and the 
shipwrecked colonists were found by Menendez ' on his 
return. Two hundred escaped, but the remainder, one 
hundred and fifty in number, surrendered, and were 
marched to St. Augustine, with their hands tied behind 
them. Here they were ruthlessly massacred. Those who 
had escaped were afterward captured and made slaves for 
life. 

The Massacre Revenged. — No notice was taken of this 
deed of blood by the government of France. But a private 
gentleman, named Dominique de Gourgues (dd-mX-nek' du 
goorg').. determined to revenge his murdered countrymen, 
even if they did differ with him in religion. He fitted out 
a secret expedition, sailed to Florida, and surprised the 
Spanish garrison at Fort Carolina, putting every soul to 
death. Being too weak to attack St Augustine, he returned 
in triumph to France.^ 

First Settlements in Canada. — Not until after 1600 did 
the French succeed in planting a permanent colony. Their 
religious wars had ended in 1598, and they then first be- 
came free for enterprise. The fisheries not only attracted 

' Menendez had hanged his captives at. Fort Carolina, placing over 
their heads the inscription, " I do this not as to Frenchmen, but as 
to Lutherans." De Gourgues retorted in kind, hangii.g his prisoners 
where the French had been hung, and placing- over thtin the inscrip- 
tion, " I do this not as to Spaniards, but as to assassins. " 



THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 



49 



them, but the fur-trade also had now begun, and hopes of 
profit in this direction were large. Fish and furs alike 
drew them to the north, and all their later attempts at set- 
tlement were made in Canada.^ 

In 1603, Henry IV. gave to a Huguenot nobleman named 
De Monts {mong) the right to plant a colony in Acadia, a 




Early French Settlements in Canada. 



district extending from 
the fortieth to the forty- 
sixth parallel of latitude 
(from the site of Phila- 
delphia to that of Mon- 
treal). This name was afterward restricted to the region 
which was finally named by the English New Brunswick 
and Nova Scotia. In the same year a French adventurer 
named Samuel de Champlain sailed up the St. Lawrence as 
far as Montreal. In 1604 a settlement called Port Royal 



^ In 1598 the Marquis de la Roque established a colony on Sable 
Island, his colonists being taken from the prisons of France. It was 
abandoned after a few years, the prisoners being pardoned and per- 
mitted to return. 



60 



THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 



was made in Acadia by Poutrincourt {poo-trdng-codr'), a 
companion of De Monts. It was the first permanent 
French settlement in America, and preceded by three 
years the first English settlement. It was afterward 
named Annapolis in honor of the English Queen Anne. 

Champlain's Career. — Champlain returned in 1608 and 
built a fort at Quebec, as a fur-trading post. This place 
became the centre of wide-spread French explorations, in 
the interests of trade, missionary work, and discovery. 




RciNS OF Fort Ticondeboga. 

Champlain discovered the beautiful lake which bears his 
name, and pushed his explorations westward as far as Lake 
Huron, He found himself in a centre of Indian war, and 
was induced by the Hurons to take their part in their wars 
with the Iroquois, — the powerful Indian confederacy of 
New York. 

The first Indian battle in which the whites took part was 
fought in 1609, at a point near the site of Fort Ticonderoga, 
to which the Hurons, with their French allies, had as- 
cended in canoes up Lake Chajuplain. The muskets of 
the whites, new and terrible weapons to the Indians, won 
Champlain and his followers an easy victory. But it was 



THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 51 

destined to be a costly one. It made the Iroquois bitter 
enemies of the French, and they afterward revenged their 
defeat in blood. They were always ready in after-years to 
join the English against the French, and did much to save 
New York from French occupancy. It was due to their 
hostility that the French made no settlements south of the 
lakes. 

Missionary Explorations. — The later explorations of the 
French were largely accomplished by two unlike classes 
of men, the fur-traders and the Jesuit missionaries. The 
former penetrated deeply into the forests, lived on terms of 
intimacy with the Indians, and were strikingly active and 
daring in their excursions. The missionaries were equally 
fearless in their efforts to convert the Indians to the Chris- 
tian faith. They suff"ered severely at the hands of the sav- 
ages, and many of them were put to death with torture, but 
their zeal and energy were not to be overcome, and they 
forced their way deep into the continent. 

In 1673, Father Marquette, hearing of a great river 
called by the Indians the " Father of Waters," floated 
down the Wisconsin in a birch-bark canoe to the Missis- 
sippi, which he descended to the mouth of the Arkansas. 
He went as a companion to Joliet, a famous explorer. Fear 
of the Indians and of capture by the Spaniards prevented 
their going farther south. In 1680 another Jesuit mission- 
ary. Father Hennepin, explored the upper Mississippi as 
far as the Falls of St. Anthony. 

La Salle's Discoveries. — But the greatest of these ex- 
plorers was Robert de la Salle, who had been educated as a 
Jesuit, but had established a trading-post at the outlet of 
Lake Ontario. There was never a more indefatigable ex- 
plorer. About 1669 he made an expedition in which h« 
discovered the Ohio and Illinois Rivers. The first vessel 



52 



THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 



ever seen on the Great Lakes was launched by him in 1679. 
In this, which he called the Griffin, he traversed Lakes Erie, 
Huron, and Michigan. Sending the vessel back for supplies, 
he built a fort on the Illinois River, The vessel was lost, 
and in 1680 he made his way through a thousand miles of 
wilderness to Montreal for the purpose of obtaining sup- 
plies, with which he returned to the Illinois. 

Louisiana. — La Salle's life during the next two years was 
full of misfortune and adventure, but in 1682 he launched 
his canoes on the Mississippi, and floated down that great 
stream to its mouth. Here, on the 9th of April of that year, 
he planted the banner of France and took possession of 
the great stream and the surrounding country in the name 
of Louis XIV. He named the country Louisiana, after this 
monarch, and afterward sought to found a colony at the 
mouth of the Mississippi ; but through an error the colony 
landed on the coast of Texas, where it was subsequently 
destroyed by the Spaniards. La Salle 
started on foot for Canada to obtain 
aid for the suffering colonists, but had 
not gone far before he was murdered 
by some mutinous companions. 

Work and Claims of the French. — 
The French in America at the date 
now reached were not numerous, but 
their enterprise had been great. They 
had explored the Great Lakes, trav- 
ersed Lakes Champlain and George, 
passed down the Mississippi from the 
Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf, and 
journeyed widely through the interior. Here and there 
they had planted settlements in the wilderness, and had 
established military posts on the lakes and the Mississippi, 




>fi' 



A French Woodsman. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 53 

Their claims were greater than their discoveries, especially 
those made by La Salle, which covered the whole valley 
of the Mississippi as far east as the AUeghanies and indefi- 
nitely westward. 

3. THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 

Beginnings of English Exploration. — Though an English 
expedition, that of the Cabots, was the first to discover North 
America, the English were slower than the French in ex- 
ploring it. They did not seek American waters until after 
1560, when Sir John Hawkins, a famous sailor, began to 
kidnap negroes in Africa and sell them as slaves to the 
Spanish in the West Indies. At that time few people saw 
anything wrong in slavery. Hawkins was looked upon as 
honest and pious. He felt that he was helping English trade 
by dealing in slaves, and had on his coat of arms a picture 
of a negro bound with a cord. 

Sir Francis Drake. — Other English mariners engaged in 
piracy, seizing the Spanish treasure-ships and robbing them 
of their gold and silver. Among these was another famous 
English seaman, Sir Francis Drake. His expeditions against 
the Spanish ships and settlements began in 1567 and ended 
in 1595. In 1577 he sailed on a piratical expedition to the 
Pacific, gained great treasure by plunder on the coasts of 
Chile and Peru, and sailed north as far as the coast of 
Oregon, in the hope of finding a passage to the Atlantic. 
He landed at Drake's Bay, north of San Francisco, and 
claimed the country for the King of England, giving it the 
name of New Albion. He returned home by way of the 
Cape of Good Hope, and was thus the second to circum- 
navigate the globe. 

The Northwest Passage. — This kind of enterprise was 
not very creditable to England. It was followed by efforts 



54 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 

at exploration. In 1576, nearly eighty years after the 
voyages of the Cabots, another expedition sought North 
America. This was commanded by Sir Martin Frobisher, 
who hoped to find a northwest passage to Asia by which 
English ships could reach India, since at that time the Portu- 
guese controlled the route thither by way of Africa, and 
had the monopoly of the trade. He discovered Frobisher 
Bay and brought back much information about the Eski- 
mos.^ Captain John Davis made three voyages northward 
for the same purpose (1585-89), but did little beyond dis- 
covering Davis Strait. These were the first polar explora- 
tions. 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — The next English explorer was 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who sailed west in 1579, with a 
grant from Queen Elizabeth of any new lands he might 
discover. His first effort failed, and in 1583 he went again, 
with the purpose of planting a colony in the new world. 
Landing on Newfoundland, he claimed that island for the 
queen.^ Again he met with wreck, and started home in 
his smallest vessel. A storm arose and the ship and crew 



' He brought back a black stone which the London goldsmiths said 
contained gold, and the story soon gained currency that the lucky ex- 
plorer had found the place where King Solomon got the gold for his 
temple in Jerusalem. A stock company was now formed, and. Fro- 
bisher went back with fifteen ships and a colony, which returned with 
him, though he brought several ship-loads of the black stones. That 
is the last we hear of Solomon's mines or the gold-bearing stones. 
But we do hear ♦hat a few years later Frobisher's wife was begging 
help from the government. 

"^ At that time there were more ships finding their way to the Ameri- 
can coast than we have any record of in history. When Gilbert entered 
the harbor of St. John's. Newfoundland, he found there thirty-six ves- 
sels belonging to various nations. It is said that at that early date four 
hundred vessels annually visited Newfoundland. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 



55 



went down. Only one vessel of the fleet escaped to report 
Gilbert's loss.^ 

English Lethargy. — Nearly a century had now passed 
since the voyages of the Cabots, and, beyond the effort of 
Gilbert, no attempt had been 
made to take possession of the 
territory claimed for the English 
crown. Spain had established 
'herself in Florida and the south, 
drawn thither by the lure of 
gold. France was preparing to 
colonize the Canadian north, 
drawn by the lure of fish and 
furs. A broad region of unoc- 
cupied and unexplored country 
lay between, waiting for an oc- 
cupant. 

Sir Walter Raleigh. — The 
first who made an effort to take possession of this territory 
was Sir Walter Raleigh (raiv'le), half-brother to Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert, and a favorite of Queen Elizabeth. When she 
learned that her favorite courtier wished to colonize the 
new world she gave him a charter granting him the right 
to settle any territory not occupied by Christian settlers, 
and. making hijn governor and law-maker for the colony, 
though she stipulated that the colonists should have all the 
pohtical and religious rights of Englishmen. 

Raleigh's Colonies. — Raleigh was not able to go in per- 




SiR Walter Raleigh. 



^ When the storm arose Gilbert was asked by the captain of the 
larger ship to come on board his vesseL But he refused to desert his 
crew, saying, "We are as near to heaven by sea as by land." Night 
fell, and when day dawned again the vessel had disappeared. 



56. THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 

son, but he sent out several expeditions, the first in 1584, 
the last in 1587. They landed on Roanoke Island, on the 
coast of what is now North Carolina, though Queen Eliza- 
beth was so pleased with the reports of the beauty and 
fertility of the country that she named it Virginia, in honor 
of herself as a virgin queen. The first American child of 
English parents, born on Roanoke Island in 1587, was 
given the same name, being called Virginia Dare. 

Raleigh's colonies did not prosper. The first returned 
home to escape starvation.^ War with Spain prevented 
any aid being sent to the 1587 colony for several years, 
and when it was sent the colony had disappeared and no 
trace of it could be found. For years afterward Raleigh 
sent out vessels in search of his vanished colony, but in 
vain. He finally gave up the enterprise and assigned his 
rights under the charter to a company of London merchants 
and adventurers. 

Gosnold's Expedition. — It was not until after 1600 that 
England succeeded in planting a successful colony in 
America. In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold crossed the 
ocean to the New England coast, pursuing the direct 
course, instead of following the southern track of Colum- 
bus, as had been the custom. He discovered a cape which 



' The colonists brought home with them two very important prod- 
ucts of the new world. One of these was the potato, which was soon 
found to be a valuable article of food, and which is now very widely 
cultivated. The other was tobacco, which was received with great 
favor in England, and in time grew to be one of the most important 
articles of American exportation. Raleigh was perhaps the first who 
learned to smoke it in England. The story is told that, while he was 
smoking one morning, a servant who was bringing him a mug of ale 
became frightened on seeing a cloud of smoke issuing from his mouth, 
and flung the ale in his face to extinguish the fancied flames. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 57 

he named Cape Cod, from the great number of codfish 
found there, and built on Cuttyhunk Island the first house 
erected in Massachusetts. He proposed to leave a colony 
there, but finding an abundance of sassafras-root and cedar 
logs, then valuable in England, he loaded his vessel with 
these and returned. 

The London and Plymouth Companies. — The next step 
in the history of American colonization was taken by James 
I., who became King of England in 1603. In 1606 he gave 
a charter to two companies to colonize America. One of 
these was formed of London merchants, and was called the 
London Company. The other was formed of people of 
Plymouth and its vicinity, and was called the Plymouth 
Company. Virginia, which they were to colonize, was then 
held to extend from Florida to Canada. 

North and South Virginia. — The charter granted to the 
London Company the tract between latitudes 34° and 38°, 
extending from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Poto- 
mac. This was called South Virginia. To the Plymouth 
Company was granted the tract between latitudes 41° and 
45°, or from about Long Island to Nova Scotia. This was 
called North Virginia. The middle strip, between the Poto- 
mac and the Hudson, was open to both companies, though 
each was to possess the country for one hundred miles 
around any settlement it should make in this region. 

It was later added that these strips of land should extend 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Men then had very vague 
ideas how far off the Pacific was, and several sought to 
reach it by sailing up the rivers from the Atlantic coast. 

Attempts at Colonization, — In 1607 both companies 
tried to form colonies. Sir George Popham made an 
attempt, under the Plymouth Company, to found a colony 
at the mouth of the Kennebec, Maine. But the winter was 



58 



THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 



severe, and in the spring the half-starved and half-frozen 
emigrants gladly made their way home. 

In the same year the London Company sent out a colony 
which narrowly escaped a similar fate. It landed at a point 
on James River, and founded at Jamestown' the first per- 
manent English colony in America. 



4. THE DUTCH EXPLORERS. 

Henry Hudson's Expedition. — Two years afterward, in 
1609, the Dutch made their first effort to explore the New 

World. They had a 
flourishing trade with 
the East Indies (Hindu- 
stan and the adjoining 
islands), and it was with 
a hope of finding a west- 
ward passage to that 
region that Henry Hud- 
son, an Englishman in 
the service of Holland, 
was sent across the 
Atlantic. 

In his little ship, the 
Half-Moon, he entered 
New York Bay, and 
sailed up the Hudson, 
the river that bears his 
name, to the head of tide-water, near Albany. He hoped 
that this stream would lead him to the Pacific Ocean. In 




The Half-Moon in the Hudson. 



' The names James River and Jamestown were given in honor of 
James L of England. The headlands at the river's outlet were named 
Cape Henry and Cape Charles from the king's sons. 




ViRoiNTA. Territory Claimed by the 
English. 



New France. Territory Claimed by thf 
French. 





Florida Territory Claimed by the 
Spanish. 



New Netherland. Territory Claimed b'* 
THE Dutch. 

59 



60 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 

this, of course, he failed ; but it was found that the Indians 
had valuable furs, which they were eager to trade for 
knives, hatchets, and other goods, and Dutch traders soon 
made their way to the Hudson. By 1614 a trading station 
was established on Manhattan Island, at the river's mouth. 
This station was the beginning of the great city of New 
York. 

Claims of the European Nations. — Though the settle- 
ments of England, France, and Spain on United States 
territory were still very small their claims were large. 
The Spanish held that Florida extended northward without 
definite limit. Their claim was founded on the discovery 
by Columbus and the explorations of De Leon and others. 
The French claimed that New France, as their domain in 
America was called, extended on the Atlantic from New 
York to Labrador, and embraced the basins of the Great 
Lakes and the Mississippi River, with all their tributary 
streams. This claim was founded on the discoveries of 
Verrazano, Cartier, Champlain, and La Salle. The English 
claim extended from Labrador to Florida, and westward to 
the Pacific. It was based on the voyages of the Cabots. 
New Netherlands, the Dutch claim, was held to extend 
from Cape May to Nova Scotia, and indefinitely westward. 
It was founded on the discoveries of Henry Hudson. In 
all this vast territory there were but a few hundred white 
settlers. Yet the rival claims were almost sure to end in 
a struggle for possession, and finally brought on a bitter 
war between England and France. 



F>ART III. 

THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



I. THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 

Colonial Diversity. — We have hitherto dealt with the 
roots of American history. From these roots grew up a 
number of separate and unhke stems, which in the end 
combined to form one great national trunk. In other words, 
from the work of the explorers and settlers arose a number 
of distinct colonies, which finally united into the federal 
republic of the United States of America. 

These colonies were like so many separate nations, each 
with a history of its own. We are obliged, therefore, to 
tell a number of stories instead of a single story. At the 
time of the Revolution there were thirteen such colonies. 
But it does not follow that we have thirteen stories to tell. 
The New England colonies have but one history. The 
history of New Jersey is subordinate to that of New York. 
Delaware was until the Revolution a part of Pennsylvania. 
The two Carolinas were long a single colony. As a result 
we have, instead of thirteen, only seven stories to tell. And 
these during the wars with the French colonies flow together 
and become a single story. From that time forward there 
is but one colonial history. 

The Settlement of Jamestown. — In 1607 the London 
Company, being desirous of planting a colony within its 
territory, sent out three ships with one hundred and five 
colonists, all men. Of these, fifty-two were " gentlemen," 

61 



62 *' THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

— that is, persons of good family, not accustomed to labor. 
The others were mechanics and tradesmen. Captain New- 
port, the commander, was directed to land on Roanoke 
Island, the seat of Raleigh's unfortunate colonies. But a 
storm forced the fleet to seek refuge in Chesapeake Bay, and 
there they sailed up a river, which they named the James. 

The situation was attractive. The banks of the river 
were covered with flowers. The country seemed likely to 
make excellent farming territory. It is said that the Indians 
called it the "good land." The colonists, therefore, deter- 
mined to remain there, and landed. May 13, 1607, on a 
peninsula which they named Jamestown. 

Unfortunate Conditions. — Unfortunately, they had not 
been wisely chosen. There were too many " gentlemen" 
in their ranks. There were no women. They were more 
inclined to hunt for gold than to build comfortable habita- 
tions and till the ground. Their food gave out. The spot 
proved unhealthy. Within four months half of them had 
died of fever or been killed by the Indians, who proved 
hostile. The rest of them would have perished from starva- 
tion had not some friendly Indians brought them corn. But 
when autumn came the frosts stopped the fever, game was 
found in abundance, and log huts were built in which to 
pass the winter. Affairs now began to look brighter. 

Captain John Smith. — The safety and success of the 
colony were due to one man, Captain John Smith, a man 
of remarkable powers ana resources, and of a history replete 
with stirring adventures. It may safely be said that but for 
him the colony at Jamestown would soon have proved a 
failure.^ 

' The story of Smith is one of high interest. He was born in 1579, 
fought while quite young in the wars in the Netherlands, was ship- 



THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 



63 



Smith seeks the Pacific. — Smith kept himself busy in 
exploring the country. One of his expeditions was made for 
the purpose of seeking the Pacific 
Ocean. This was done by order 
of the company, who supposed 
that a journey of two hundred 
miles might bring them to it.^ 
As the James River had already 
been tried in vain, the Chicka- 
hominy was now attempted. 

The Adventure with Po-w- 
hatan. — In this expedition Smith 
was taken prisoner by the In- 
dians and brought before Pow- 
hatan, the great chief of the 
neighboring tribe. His wit now 
saved his life. He amazed the Indians by showing them 
his pocket compass, and astonished them by writing a letter 
to Jamestown, which informed his friends of his misfortune. 
They could not comprehend the mystery of " talking paper." 

But, according to the story of Captain Smith, it needed 
more than this to save his life. He tells us that Powhatan 
condemned him to death, and had ordered a warrior to 
knock out his brains with a club, when Pocahontas, the 
youthful daughter of the chief, ran forward, clasped her 
arms around his headj and prevented the blow. 




John Smith on an Exploring 
Expedition. 



wrecked, robbed, and fell into great want in France. He afterward 
fought against the Turks, and killed three of them in single combat. 
He was taken prisoner, made a slave, and escaped by killing his master. 
Making his way back to England, he joined the colony about to sail for 
America. He was brave and able, but vain and boastful. 

^ A map sold in London in 1651 represents Virginia as a narrow 
strip of land between the two oceans. 



64 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



As we have only Smith's word for this romantic incident, 
and as he was in the habit of boasting of his exploits, many 
doubt this story. But it may be true, for white men have 
often been saved by the interference of Indian women. 

Smith's Activity and Energy. — Smith was certainly an 
active and energetic man and the soul of the colony. He 

had been appointed by 
the king one of its gov- 
erning council, and soon 
became president of the 
council and the acting 
governor of the colony. 
As an explorer he kept 
himself busy, sailing up 
Chesapeake Bay, enter- 
ing its inlets and rivers, 
obtaining food from the 
Indians by coaxing or 
threatening,and in other 
ways making himself 
useful. 

Pools' Gold. — He 
had enough to do to 
keep the colonists from 
ruining themselves. 
One of them found a yellow substance which he thought 
was gold. At once, in spite of Smith's protests, they aban- 
doned everything else and set to work digging this worthless 
stuff and loading a vessel with it. On reaching England 
the cargo proved to be what is known as iron pyrites, a 
yellow mineral which has been well named " fools' gold." 

Laziness and Profanity Overcome. — But to make the 
people work was no easy task. Smith tried a radical plan, 




Smith Meeting the Indians. 



THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 65 

those who would not work being given nothing to eat. 
Swearing seems to have been an epidemic in the colony, 
but he broke that up by having a can of cold water poured 
down the sleeve of each swearer for every oath. He had 
won the friendship of Powhatan, and the troubles with the 
Indians ceased. They came to look on Captain Smith as a 
superior being, and when rain was wanted used to beg him 
to pray for it. 

Smith Returns. — Under his directions some more com- 
fortable houses were built and a number of fields were 
cleared and planted with corn. All would perhaps have 
gone well now but for a serious accident to the redoubt- 
able captain. In 1609 he was badly injured by the explo- 
sion of a bag of gunpowder and obliged to return to England. 
He never came back to Virginia. 

The Starving Time. — The departure of Captain Smith 
was like the removal of a safety-valve from an engine. 
The people at once fell back into laziness and improvidence. 
Work ceased. The food was consumed, the Indians became 
hostile again, and refused to bring food. New colonists 
came, men and women now, but they were the refuse of 
London streets and jails, and matters grew worse instead 
of better. 

In the winter of 1609-10 affairs in the colony reached 
their lowest ebb. Sickness and famine attacked the people. 
Some of them were killed by the Indians. Others seized a 
vessel and sailed away as pirates. Death assailed the 
settlers on all sides, and when spring came only sixty out 
of about five hundred persons remained alive. That mis- 
erable winter was well named "The Starving Time." 

The Colony Abandoned. — In the spring a vessel came, 
bringing Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, who 
had been wrecked on the Bermuda Islands the autumn 



66 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. • 

before. They found matters in so desperate a state that it 
was resolved to abandon the country and take the few 
survivors back to England. Some of the settlers, glad to 
escape from that wretched place, proposed to burn James- 
town, but fortunately this was not done. There was none 
to shed a tear over their ruined hopes, none that mourned 
their wrecked enterprise. 

Lord Delaware Arrives. — They had actually embarked 
and dropped some distance .down the river with the tide, 
when they met a fleet of ships coming up the stream. It 
was commanded by Lord Delaware, who had been ap- 
pointed governor of Virginia by the London Company, and 
given a new charter under wiiich he had entire control of 
the colony. The ships contained abundant supplies and a 
new company of colonists, and at the command of the new 
goveo'nor the vessel turned back and Jamestown was once 
more saved from ruin. Lord Delaware, on landing, fell 
upon his knees and thanked God that he had come in time 
to save Virginia. 

Governor Dale. — Lord Delaware remained but a few 
months, ill health obliging him to return. Governor Dale, 
a stern old soldier, succeeded him. He was a rigid marti- 
nef. If a colonist dared to criticise his doings, he had a 
hole bored through his tongue. A man who refused to go 
to church was starved and whipped until he changed his 
mind. 

Communism. — Yet with all his strictness he had good 
sense. Up to this time the colony had been conducted on 
the plan of communism. That is, there was no separate 
property. All things belonged to the community. All 
products were brought to the public storehouse, out of 
which every one was fed. This system was well meant, 
but it did not work well, since it discouraged industry and 



THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 67 

encouraged idleness. The lazy would not work at all if 
they could get food without. The industrious would not 
work hard if they were to be no better off for it. 

A Change of Plan. — Governor Dale changed this system. 
He gave every settler a tract of land, on which he could 
work for himself. At a later date any one was permitted 
to purchase one hundred acres. At once a new spirit was 
shown. Work became brisk. Even the lazy were spurred 
to exertion. It was now only required that each farmer 
should bring yearly two and a half barrels of corn to the 
public granary, as a tax in kind. 

A New Industry. — In 1612, John Rolfe, a prominent 
settler, began the systematic culture of tobacco. This plant 
was rapidly becoming an article of common use in Eng- 
land. King James was strongly opposed to it, and wrote a 
pamphlet called " Counterblast against Tobacco." But as 
his people smoked in spite of his counterblast, he tried to 
make it of use by laying a heavy tax on it.^ 

The demand for tobacco increased. By 1616 the settlers 
were giving nearly all their time to it. At one time it was 
planted even in the streets of Jamestown. Its cultivation 
quickly carried the colony from adversity to prosperity. 
Many English farmers now came to Virginia, hoping to 
make their fortunes from the new plant. By 1619 the 
annual shipment of tobacco to England was more than 
forty thousand pounds. By 1670 it reached twelve million 
pounds. 

The Effect of this Industry. — As a result of this cul- 
ture nearly all the Virginians became farmers. Few towns 

* Tobacco had long been in use by the Indians. Its name is believed 
to have been derived from "tabaco," the Carib name for the instru- 
ment used in inhaling its smoke. It was first brought to England by 
Sir Francis Drake. 



68 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



were built. Tobacco plantations were formed on the banks 
of all the rivers, where vessels could load and whence the 
tobacco could be shipped direct to England. In time plan- 
tations lined both banks of the James for many miles, 
while the culture flourished also on the banks of the 
Chesapeake and of its smaller rivers. 

Marriage of Pocahontas. — John Rolfe, who introduced 
the nilture of tobacco in 1612, married the following year, 

his wife being Pocahontas, the 
Indian maiden who had saved 
Ca])tain Smith's life, and who 
had now grown to womanhood. 
She was baptized in the little 
church of Jamestown, and there 
married to young Rolfe. Three 
years afterward he took her to 
England, where her grace and 
simplicity of manners won the 
greatest admiration. As she 
was about to return to Virginia 
with her husband, she suddenly 
sickened and died. She left an 
infant son, who gained distinction in later life, and from 
whom many Virginians of to-day are indirectly or directly 
descended. 

This marriage had one important efifect. It won the 
friendship of Powhatan, the father of Pocahontas, for the 
colonists. There was no more trouble with the Indians 
while he lived, while his death was quickly followed by a 
massacre. 

Importation of "Women. — Rolfe's seeking an Indian 
bride may have been partly due to the lack of young 
women in Virginia. There were married women there, 




THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 69 

but few maidens. This was a serious defect in the organi- 
zation of the colony, and the London Company, perceiving 
this want, sent over ninety young women as wives for the 
colonists. The price for the passage of each was fixed at 
one hundred pounds of the best tobacco, — afterward it went 
up to one hundred and fifty pounds, — a sum which had to 
be paid by the young planters who wanted these maidens 
for wives. The price was wilUngly paid, and the demand 
was so brisk that the first importation was quickly disposed 
of, and others were sent for. 

The Need of Laborers. — The demand for new immi- 
grants was not confined to wives. Laborers were as 
greatly needed. The rapidly growing cultivation of the 
tobacco plant had caused the taking up of large tracts of 
land, divided into numerous plantations, and needing 
many hands alike for work in the fields, the curing of the 
leaf, and its conveyance to the water's edge for shipment 
abroad. 

The Apprentice System. — This need was filled in a 
violent manner, well suited to the character of the times, 
but which would be impossible in these days. Shiploads 
of criminals were taken from the crowded prisons of Eng- 
land and sent to Virginia to be sold into years of slavery. 
This business became profitable, and the numbers were 
added to by kidnapping. Gypsies, vagabonds, and orphan 
children were seized in the English seaports and sent as 
laborers across the ocean. The vile gangs of kidnappers 
did not confine themselves to this class, but reputable per- 
sons were sometimes added to the number. Some enter- 
prising young men without money, who wanted to get to 
America, came over willingly in this way. 

In Virginia these persons were bound out to labor for a 
term of years. They were called " indentured servants," 



70 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



but were practically slaves during their term of service. 
When set free some of them became planters themselves ; 
some fell back into their old idle vagabondage ; some made 
their way to the frontier and became hunters and trappers. 

Negro Slavery. — In August, 1619, a Dutch vessel came 
into the James River, and sold twenty negroes as slaves to 
the colonists. As they proved useful on the plantations, 
others were soon brought. By the year 1700 there were 
enough of them to serve the purposes of the planters, and 
the system of white apprenticeship soon ceased. 

System of Government. — Up to 1619 the colonists were 
virtually slaves themselves. They had no voice in their 
own gov- 




Ft. Duquesne 



E :n 




ernment, 
but were 
ruled ab- 
solutely 
by a coun- 
cil which 
was ruled 
by the 

king. When governors came, 
beginning with Lord Dela- 
ware, they had arbitrary 
power, and used it in an arbi- 
trary fashion. They made 
what laws they pleased, and 
forced the people to work for 
the benefit of the company. 

This system worked well 
enough with the French and 
Spanish colonists, who had been governed in much the 
same way at home, and knew no better method. It did 






The Middle Colonies. 



THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 71 

not work so well with Englishmen, who had long possessed 
a voice in their own government by electing the members 
of parliament who made the laws. In 1619 there were 
four thousand white people in Virginia, and they had 
grown tired of being treated as children or slaves. 

The First Colonial Assembly. — The people were divided 
into eleven settlements or "boroughs." Oppressed by 
Argall, a deputy governor, they demanded a reform in the 
government, and the London Company consented to give 
them a voice in legislation. Governor Yeardley, who was 
sent to succeed Argall, called on the boroughs to elect each 
two " burgesses," or representatives, to be members of a 
law-making assembly called to meet at Jamestown. 

This assembly was made up of the governor and the 
council, chosen by the company, and the burgesses, elected 
by the people. It met in the choir of the little church at 
Jamestown, July 30, 1619, being the first legislative body 
ever formed in America. Thus was the English system of 
self-government transferred to Virginia. The assembly was 
called the House of Burgesses.^ The laws passed by it 
needed to be ratified by the London Company ; but, on the 
other hand, the orders of the company had to be ratified 
by the assembly. Virginia, therefore, was given a large 
share in its own government.^ 

Virginia a Royal Province. — King James of England, 
who did not strongly favor the freedom of the people, was 
not pleased with this ac^'on of the London Company. He 



' One of the burgesses in the first assembly was named Jefferson 
More than one hundred and fifty years afterward a descendant of this 
man. named Thomas Jefferson, wrote the Declaration of Independence. 

' In 1820 the privileges given to the people were confirmed in a 
written constitution, an instrument under which Virginia long con- 
tinued a self-governed community. 



72 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

disliked the company for other reasons. As Vii^inia had 
grown populous, the company had become rich and pow- 
erful. Among its members were several peers and many 
rich merchants. In politics it supported the party opposed 
to the king, and he determined to rob it of its power. 

To do this he charged it with mismanagement and brought 
suit against it in the courts. The judges favored the king, 
— as judges were very apt to do at that time, — and the 
company lost its charter, and with it its power. This was 
in 1624. Virginia thus became a royal province, or one 
under the direct rule of the king. Fortunately, he did not 
deprive it of self-government, but he set to work to write 
out for it a new code of laws. Before this was ready he 
died (in March, 1625), and his son, Charles I., became 
king. 

Charles I. did not like free government any more than 
his father had done. But he got into so much trouble at 
home in trying to govern England without a parliament that 
he had little time to .occupy himself with matters abroad. 
So Virginia kept its House of Burgesses and its power of 
making laws and voting taxes. 

The Indians Peaceful. — While these political movements 
were in progress, and Virginia was rapidly growing in 
wealth and population, the Indians were quiet and peaceful. 
Powhatan had remained the firm friend of the whites, and 
efforts were being made to civilize and educate the savages. 
But Powhatan died in 1618, his brother, Opechan'kano, 
became chief of the confederacy of tribes, and a change of 
feeling arose. 

The Massacre. — The new chief vowed that the sky 
should fall before he would break the peace. But he was 
secretly jealous of the whites, who were gradually taking 
possession of the land, and quietly organized a conspiracy 



THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 73 

for their extermination. The plot was kept a complete 
secret. On the morning fixed for the massacre, March 22, 
1622, the Indians visited the houses and sat at the tables 
uf their former friends. Suddenly the work of death began. 
At a fixed moment the colonists were attacked at all points 
and slaughtered without mercy. The men at work in the 
fields were killed with their own hoes and hatchets. Men 
and women in the houses were ruthlessly slain. Only 
one settlement escaped. A converted Indian had warned 
a friend, and he put Jamestown and the surrounding 
plantations on their guard. Yet so murderous was the 
assault that in that day of blood three hundred and 
forty-seven men, women, and children fell victims to their 
merciless foes. 

Sympathy for the Colonists. — This dreadful affair was 
a staggering blow to the colony. It was the more so since 
the Indians kept up their attacks, so that before the war 
ended the four thousand Virginians were reduced to two 
thousand five hundred. Great sympathy was felt abroad. 
Even King James was kind enough to-send over some useless 
old arms that had been stored in the Tower of London. 
Captain Smith, then living quietly in London, offered to go 
over to the help of the colonists if the company would send 
out a suitable force. But the company, while ready with 
its sympathy, was not inclined to spend its profits by 
providing armed men, so Smith stayed at home, and the 
colonists were left to fight for themselves. 

Their Revenge. — This they did fiercely and bloodily. 
As soon as the first panic was over revenge on the Indians 
began. Their villages were burned ; they were hunted from 
place to place ; they were killed like so many venomous 
snakes. It was ten years before peace was restored, and 
by that time great numbers of Indians had been slain. 



74 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

The Second Massacre. — Another Indian outbreak took 
place in 1644. Five hundred persons now fell dead before 
the weapons of the savages. As before, the reprisal was 
eqilally bloody, and in the end all the natives were driven 
from the settled region, which was kept for the whites 
alone. 

Royal Oppression. — Though Charles I. had enough to 
keep him occupied at home, he managed to make trouble 
for his loyal subjects in Virginia. In 1629 he sent. over Sir 
John Harvey as governor, and Sir John soon showed his 
idea of public honesty by robbing the treasury and trying 
to sell lands belonging to individuals. 

In six years the people, in whom the spirit of freedom 
was growing, sent home this titled thief, greatly to the dis- 
pleasure of the king. He tried to send Harvey back, but 
the people were resolute, the king's troubles were growing 
at home, and he settled the matter by sending over a new 
governor, Sir William Berkeley, who was destined to prove 
worse even than Harvey. 

Berkeley as Governor. — Berkeley was a thorough aris- 
tocrat. He did not believe in popular government any 
more than the king, and thanked God that Virginia had no 
such things as free schools and a printing-press. He retired 
from office while Oliver Cromwell was in power, but in 
1660, when Charles II, came to the throne, Berkeley became 
governor again, and made himself the autocrat of Virginia. 
For sixteen years he ruled the province according to his 
own will. There was a House of Burgesses, it is true, but 
the members were in sympathy with him, and during all 
those years no new election was held, so that the people 
had no voice in the government. 

Other Measures of Oppression. — During Cromwell's 
time " Navigation Laws " were passed which forbade the 



THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 75 

Virginians to send tobacco to or receive goods from any 
country except England. Charles II. determined to enforce 
these laws, which had not been strictly obeyed. The result 
was ruinous to the planters. As they had only an English 
market, they must sell for what the English merchants 
chose to give, and pay for their sugar, cloth, and other 
goods whatever English merchants chose to ask. 

That was not all, nor the worst. In 1673 the profligate 
king gave away the whole of Virginia, a colony then con- 
taining forty thousand people, to two of his favorites, the 
Earl of Arlington and Lord Culpeper, as coolly as if he 
Avere disposing of so much unoccupied land. 

The People Rebellious. — It was not very easy, even at 
the will of a king, for two men to take possession of what 
was almost a nation. The two lords did not find it con- 
venient to lay hold of their new estate, with its angry 
thousands of landholders. The king's gift had made the 
people rebellious. Their homes and estates had been 
granted to strangers, they had no assembly to represent 
and protect them, their taxes were enormous, their crops 
had lost most of their value. They had little but their 
lives, and these now became endangered. 

The Indians on the War- Path. — In 1676 the Indians 
again rose and began massacring the frontier settlers. 
The savages had been treated treacherously, and retaliated 
in their usual way. Defence was necessary, and the gov- 
ernor was appealed to for aid. He declined to give it. 
His oppressive government had made him so many enemies 
that he was afraid to call out a military force, lest it should 
turn against himself. 

In this dilemma a young lawyer and planter, Nathaniel 
Bacon by name, a member of the governor's council, asked 
Berkeley for a commission to raise a defensive force. It 



76 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

was not granted, and Bacon, whose own plantation was 
attacked, raised a force without a commission and pro- 
ceeded against the foe. 

Bacon's Rebellion. — Bacon defeated the enemy, but he 
infuriated the governor, who denounced him as a traitor. 
He at once returned, appeared before Jamestown, and by a 
show of force compelled Berkeley to grant him the com- 
mission and to order the election of a new assembly. Of 
this Bacon was made a member. 

The Indians were still in arms, and twice Bacon pro- 
ceeded against them. But he was no sooner out of sight 
than Berkeley again proclaimed him a traitor and his men 
rebels. There was nothing left for the people but civil 
war. Twice Bacon returned from the field and took pos- 
session of Jamestown. On the second occasion (Septem- 
ber, 1676) it was set on fire and burned to the ground, 
some of the patriots burning their own dwellings that they 
might not become places of shelter for the enemy. The 
town was never rebuilt. The ruined tower of the old brick 
church is nearly the only relic that remains of it. 

Bacon's Death. — So far the people were successful. How 
the affair would have ended no one can say, for in his hour 
of triumph the bold young leader took sick and died (Octo- 
ber 1, 1676). With his death the war came to an end. 
The troops, having no leader, dispersed. Berkeley was in 
power again, and proceeded to use his power mercilessly. 
He hung more than twenty of the principal people with 
hardly the form of a trial. Peace and autocracy were 
restored with the aid of bloodshed.^ Just a century after 

' Drummond, one of Bacon's chief supporters, fell into Berkeley's 
hands. "You are very welcome, Mr. Drummond," said the vindictive 
governor. " I am more glad to see you than any man in Virginia. 
You shall be hanged in half an hour." And he was. " God has been 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 77 

the rebellion of Bacon the descendants of those engaged in 
it met again at Williamsburg, the new capital of Virginia, 
and proclaimed a new rebellion, that which led to inde- 
pendence from Great Britain. 

Later Events. — Charles II. recalled Berkeley, and repri- 
manded him so sharply that the old tyrant is said to have 
died of a broken heart in consequence. Lord Culpeper, 
one of those to whom the king had given Virginia, came out 
as governor in 1680. It was his aim to get as much money 
out of the people as possible, but the king stopped his 
measures by revoking the grant and recalling the governor. 
After that all went well and smoothly in Virginia, and the 
people grew steadily in numbers, in wealth, and in comfort.^ 

2. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 
PLYMOUTH. 

New England Named. — The London Company, as we 
have seen, succeeded in founding a colony in 1607. The 
Plymouth Company was less successful. After Gosnold's 
voyage almost every year some English ship visited the 
coast of North Virginia, as it was called, but no settlement 
was made. 

inexpressibly merciful to this poor province," wrote Berkeley, after 
one of his hangings. Charles IL, who was not pleased with Berkeley's 
methods, said of him, " That old fool has hung more men in that naked 
country than I did for the murder of my father." 

' Edmund Spenser in 1590, in dedicating his " Faerie Queene" to 
Queen Elizabeth, spoke of her as queen of " England, France, and 
Ireland, and of Virginia." The coat of arms of the London Company, 
adopted in 1619, bore the motto En dat Virginia quintum, indicating 
Virginia as a fifth kingdom (Scotland being the fourth). The same 
motto was on the seal of Virginia adopted about 1663. From these 
facts Virginia gained its famous title of " The Old Dominion." 



78 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

One of these ships brought Captain John Smith, five years 
after he had gone home from Jamestown. He was sent by 
the company, and explored the coast from Cape Cod to the 
Penobscot, making a map of it. He named the country 
New England. 

The First Settlement. — Thus time went on until 1620, 
when a settlement was at length made. It was a remarkable 
one in many ways, and due to remarkable causes, of which 
it is necessary to speak. It was, after the Huguenot colony 
in Florida, the first known in history formed of men fleeing 
from religious persecution. It was to be followed by similar 
colonies in Maryland and Pennsylvania. 

Puritans and Separatists. — King Henry VIII., about a 
hundred years before, had broken loose from the Church of 
Rome and formed the Church of England. But this church 
was so full of ceremony that many of the people wished, as 
they said, to purify it. From this they got the name of 
Puritans. There were others who went further. They 
did not approve of kings and bishops as the heads of the 
church, and many of them separated from the Church of 
England, and began to hold services in private houses. 
These became known as Separatists. 

The Separatists Seek Holland. — This went on for thirty 
years. The Separatists suffered much persecution, and in 
1608 a congregation of them fled to Holland from a little 
town named Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire. In Holland at 
that time there was more religious liberty than anywhere 
else in the world, and the fugitives were so well treated that 
others joined them, until there were more than a thousand 
in all. 

These fugitives for conscience' sake might have stayed in 
Holland but for the fear that their children and grandchildren 
would lose their language and be lost in the Dutch popula- 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 79 

lion. They wished to remain Enghsh, and for this reason 
some of them decided to go to America and fonnd there a 
little state of their own. 

The Mayflower Pilgrimage. — They looked upon them- 
selves as " pilgrims" journeying to a far land, and ever 
since have been known as the Pilgrims. They wished to 
settle somewhere near the Hudson, not caring to go either 
to the English settlement of Jamestown or to the Dutch one 
on Manhattan Island. They easily got permission from the 
London Company. King James would not grant them a 
charter, but he let them go, and some London merchants 
supplied them vdth money, which they were to pay back by 
seven years' hard labor. 

The Mayflower. — In July, 1620, this little band of pilgrim 
emigrants left Delftshaven in Holland in the ship Speedwell, 
and sailed to Southampton, England, where a vessel called 
the Mayflower awaited them. They started with both ves- 
sels, but the Speedwell leaked so badly that they had to 
seek the port of Plymouth, whence the Mayflower finally 
sailed alone. On September 16, 1620, the eventful voyage 
began, the Pilgrims numbering one hundred and two, men, 
women, and children. The weather was bad, and they did 
not reach the coast of America till November. 

The Pilgrims in Harbor. — Cape Cod was first sighted. 
They tried to go farther south, but storms prevented, and 
on November 21 they dropped anchor in a harbor at the 
end of the cape (Provincetown Harbor), They had no 
authority to settle in New England, but decided to do so, and 
sent off a party to explore the coast. Finally they selected 
a locality w^hich John Smith had named Plymouth on his 
map. They had sailed from Plymouth in England, and 
decided to retain the name, as very happily chosen. 

Landing of the Pilgrims. — The Pilgrims were not all 



80 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

men of peace. As the Jamestown colony had brought out 
a valorous soldier, Captain John Smith, so the Mayflower 
brought Captain Miles Standish, a valiant warrior, who was 
to play an important part in the enterprise, and who was 
one of the exploring party which selected the place of 
landing. On the shore here is a granite boulder, one of 
many relics of the glacial period found along that coast. 
They are said to have landed on this boulder, and it has 
ever since been revered under the name of Plymouth Rock, 
the stepping-stone by which civilization entered New Eng- 
land. The date was December 21, 1620.' 

The Compact of Government. — A few days afterward 
the Mayflower arrived, and the Pilgrims landed at the 
chosen place. They had, before landing on Cape Cod, 
made a compact for their government in the cabin of the 
ship, in which they determined to make their own laws 
and choose their own governors. John Carver was the 
first chosen. Thus began the liberty-loving Commonwealth 
of New England. ' 

The First "Winter. — The land was unoccupied. A few 
years before a pestilence had swept off all its Indian popu- 
lation. But the hardships of a stormy voyage, poor food, 
and the lack of proper shelter during winter on that bleak 
coast had their natural effect. A large log hut was built, 
but it became a hospital, and by spring-time half the colo- 
nists were dead, their governor among the number. That 



' The landing was made on December 11, according to the ahnanac 
at that time. But since that time the mode of counting time has been 
changed, ten days having been added to make the calendar agree with 
the sun. To change Old Style to New Style, as they are called, these 
ten days must be added. This changes December 11 to December 21. 
The 22d is usually kept as " Forefathers' Day" in New England, through 
a mistake. ' See page 471. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 81 

the Indians might not know of their losses, the graves were 
levelled, and Indian-corn was planted over the place of 
burial. In April the Mayflower returned to England, but 
not one of the surviving Pilgrims went in her. They had 
come to stay, and would not let their misfortunes drive 
them away. 

William Bradford was elected governor, and so well did 
he fill the office that every year until his death in 1657 he 
was re-elected, except for five years in which he declined 
to serve. The other chief leaders of the Pilgrims were 
Elder Brewster, their able expounder of the gospel, and 
Miles Standish, their stout-hearted man of war. 

Dealings with the Indians. — In the spring of 1621 a 
treaty of peace was made with Massaso'it, chief of the 
Wampano'ag Indians. He remained their friend while he 
lived, and the treaty was not broken till 1675.^ The Nar- 
ragansett Indians were more warlike in inclination. Their 
chief, Canonicus, sent to Plymouth a bundle of arrows tied 
with a snake's skin. Governor Bradford, taking this to be 
a declaration of war, filled the snake's skin with powder and 
bullets, and sent it back to the hostile chief. The savages 
looked at its contents with alarm. They had seen the 
effect of the white men's guns, and believed that they had 
the power of using thunder and lightning. Canonicus con- 
cluded that he had better let them alone. 



' One day in early spring an Indian entered the village with the 
greeting, " Welcome, Englishmen." He was a chief named Samo^set, 
who had learned some English words from the fishermen on the coast 
of Maine. He afterward hrought an Indian named Squanto, who had 
been carried by force to England years before, and then brought back. 
Squanto stayed with the Pilgrims, and taught them how to plant their 
corn in the Indian fashion, by putting one or two fish for manure into 
every hill. He taught them other useful things and acted as their 
interpreter with the surrounding tribes. 

6 



82 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

Miles Standish dealt with hostile savages in a still more 
decided fashion. He discovered a plot among some of the 
savages to kill all the whites. Without hesitation he, and 
some of the stoutest of his followers, seized the plotters and 
killed them with their own knives. These measures secured 
peace in Plymouth for years.^ 

The English Company Bought Out. — The Pilgrims were 
still deeply in debt to the company of English merchants 
who had advanced the money for their enterprise. In 
1626 they bought out the claims of these merchants, 
though to do so they had to borrow a large sum of money 
in London at an interest chaise of from thirty to fifty per 
cent. But they were resolved to be free from debt at 
whatever cost. They had agreed that half the results of 
their labor for seven years should go to this company. 
Henceforth they were free from this eating debt, and had a 
fixed and definite sum to pay,^ 



^ Miles Standish was not a member of the Pilgrim community, but 
went with them as their military leader. He was about thirty-six 
years of age, of short stature but strong build, and of hot and hasty 
temper. His wife died during the first winter at Plymouth, and tra- 
dition tells that his fancy turned to a pretty maid named Priscilla 
Mullins, to whom he sent his friend John Alden to plead his cause. 
But the maiden answered, "Why not speak for yourself, Jolm?" and 
Miles was taught the folly of not doing his own courting. In addition 
to being the military head of the colony, he was for years its treasurer. 
He found another wife, settled Duxbury, and died there in 1656. 

* A party of some thirty settlers started a colony at a place which 
they called Mount WoUaston (now Quincy). This fell under the 
control of one Morton, who named it Merry Mount, sold powder and 
ehot to the Indians, gave refuge to runaway servants, and set up a May- 
pole, around which high carnival was held, a cask of wine and a hogs- 
head of ale being broached. These worldly revels were highly offen- 
sive to the staid Pilgrims of Plymouth, and Miles Standish was sent to 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 83 

Growth of the Colony. — After the formation of the 
colony of Massachusetts Bay, in 1630, the Plymouth com- 
munity grew faster. At that date there were only three 
hundred people in the colony. In 1640 it had a popu- 
lation of nearly three thousand. In 1670 there were eight 
thousand, divided among twenty towns. But the Massa- 
chusetts colony grew much more rapidly, and in the end 
absorbed that of Plymouth. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 

The Puritans in England. — The Puritans were a much 
larger body than the Separatists. They grew in time so 
powerful that they drove the king from his throne and 
established a Puritan commonwealth in England. But in 
the early reign of Charles.!, they found England none too 
comfortable to live in, and small parties of them, following 
the example of the Pilgrims, began to cross the ocean in 
search of a place of refuge where they would be at liberty 
to worship God in their own way. 

Massachusetts^ Bay. — These emigrants formed little 
settlements on the shores of Massachusetts Bay. John 
Endicott came from Dorchester, England, in 1628, and 
settled with his followers at a place which he called Salem,^ 
a Bible name meaning " Peace." Soon after a number of 



put an end to them. He did so in a summary fashion by seizing Mor- 
ton and shipping him to England. 

' Massachusetts is supposed to mean, in Indian speech, " The Great 
Hills " The hills alluded to were probably those of Milton, near 
Boston. The name, at first confined to the vicinity of Boston harbor, 
in time was applied to the whole State. 

* A small settlement was formed at Cape Ann in 1623, which re- 
moved to Naumkeag (Salem) in 1626. 



84 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

leading Puritans bought from the Plymouth Company a 
large tract of land, stretching from three miles south of the 
Charles River to three miles north of the Merrimac, and 
having no defined limit inland. They then obtained from 
Charles I. a charter incorporating them as the " Company 
of Massachusetts Bay." 

The Charter Brought to America. — The company was 
privileged to elect its own governor, deputy governor, and 
council, who could enact laws for the colony, taking care 
that they did not conflict with the laws of England. Fortu- 
nately, the charter did not say where the company should 
hold its meetings, and in 1629 it was decided to take this 
important paper to America. The king did not object. 
The Puritans annoyed him, and he was probably glad to 
get rid of as many of them as chose to emigrate frora 
England. 

■Winthrop's Colony. — In 1 630 the great emigration began. 
John Winthrop, of Groton, one of the best and noblest men 
of his time, sailed for America with 
eleven ships and nearly one thousand 
persons. Many horses and cattle were 
also brought. With them came the 
charter. Winthrop had been chosen 
by the company as resident governor. 

Boston Settled. — From Salem, 
where tliey first landed, the Puritans 
soon went to Charlestown, and then 
to a hilly peninsula opposite. The 

John Winthkoi'. , . , . i .n i i i n i o 

highest hill here had three peaks, irom 
which the English called it Tri-inountain, or Tremont. The 
Indians called it Shawmut. The name was soon changed 
to Boston, after the old English city from which many of 
the colonists had come. 




THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 85 

Growth of the Colony. — The colony grew with encour- 
aging rapidity.^ By 1634 there were four thousand settlers, 
divided into about twenty villages. By 1640 the number 
had increased to about twenty thousand. From the first 
the settlement was prosperous. The soil was poor, and 
most of the colonists devoted themselves to other pursuits 
than farming. Very many of them engaged in the fisheries. 
The imported cattle soon increased largely, pigs rooted in 
the clearings, wheat, rye, and Indian-corn were cultivated, 
roads and bridges were built, and everything went on ac- 
tively. Salt fish and lumber were sent to England and 
manufactured goods brought back. Ship-building soon 
became active, and in time an important commerce with 
the West Indies grew up. 

Signs of Oppression. — The rapid growth of the colony 
was due to political troubles in England. Interference with 
the liberties of the people at home drove thousands abroad. 
But Charles I. did not like to see these settlers on Massa- 
chusetts Bay doing so much as they pleased. They had 
too much liberty for his liking, and seemed to be building 
up a little republic of their own. In 1636 he formed a plan 
to put a stop to this, deciding to take from the colonists 
their charter and to divide their lands among certain English 
noblemen. 

The Settlers Rebel. — When the settlers heard of this 
plot a rebellion on a small scale broke out. They resolved 
to defend themselves against these titled robbers. Forts 
were built about Boston harbor and mounted with cannon, 
each village began to train its militia, and a beacon was set 

^ The colony at first suffered severely, two hundred of its members 
dying the first year, while one hundred returned to England. The 
others dispersed and started a number of settlements around the bay, 
which afterward became towns. 



86 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

up on the highest summit in the town to warn the country 
people in case of need. This hill is still known as Beacon 
Hill. Boston showed thus early the spirit it displayed a 
century and a half later. But Charles I. now had war on 
his hands at home, and thought no more of those turbulent 
colonists abroad. 

Religious Bigotry. — The Puritans had come abroad that 
they might worship God in their own way. But they were 
as intolerant as the people who had oppressed them at 
home. They decided that their way was the right and only 
way, and would not permit any one to worship in any other 
way. Members of the Church of England who came across 
w^ere sent back home. The government was Puritan, like 
the church. If any persons wanted a different religion 
and different government there was no room for them in 
Massachusetts.^ 

Roger ■Williams. — There were some among the settlers 
with broader views of human rights. One of these was 
Roger Williams, pastor of a church in Salem. He was one 
of the few men of that day who believed in religious free- 
dom, " soul liberty," as he called it. No man, he said, ought 
to be forced to pay taxes to support a minister. Every man 
had the right to worship God according to his own conscience. 
He also declared that the land in America belonged to the 
Indians, not to the king, and that the king had no right to 
give it away. 

Williams Forced to Fly. — These bold utterances alarmed 
the magistrates and clergy. Such a man as this was like a 

^ Such an idea as toleration, or liberty of worship, was then unknown. 
Governor Endicott cut out with his sword the red cross from the English 
flag, saying that it represented the Catholic religion. Governor Win- 
throp and the leaders of the church were quite as intolerant, anO did 
not propose to let heresy creep into their midst. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 87 

firebrand in the colony. Williams was ordered (in 1635) to 
leave, and an attempt was made to arrest him and send 
him to England. He escaped into the wilderness in the 
depth of winter. Here he was sheltered and fed by the 
Indians, whose language he learned, fn 1636 he obtained 
a tract of land from the Narragansett tribe, and on Narra- 
gansett Bay laid the foundations of a town which he called 
Providence, saying that God's mercy had provided for him. 

Anne Hutchinson. — Williams was not the only one who 
ventured to disturb the Puritan peace of mind. Mrs. Anne 
Hutchinson, a lady of great ability and excellent educa- 
tion, who held certain decided opinions about " grace" and 
"good works," began in 1636 a series of weekly lectures 
or sermons which soon gave rise to a bitter controversy. 
So great became her influence that some soldiers who had 
been raised to fight the Indians would not serve because 
they did not agree with the doctrines of their chaplain. 

Here was another troubler of the peace " worse than 
Roger Williams." Mrs. Hutchinson, like him, was ordered 
to leave the colony. She obeyed, and with those who 
followed her bought from the Indians the island of Aquid- 
neck, which has since been known as Rhode Island.^ 

The Quakers Come. — New trouble soon came to the 
Puritans. A sect called Quakers, but calling themselves 
Friends, had arisen in England. Their doctrines were of 
the strictest morality, yet they excited strange horror. In 
1656 the people of Massachusetts held a day of fasting and 
prayer in consequence of the reports about the doings of this 



' For this island they paid the natives forty strings of white wampum, 
twenty hoes, and ten coats. Mrs. Hutchinson in 1642 removed to 
Westchester County, New York. Here the next year her house was 
attacked and burned by the Indians, and she and all her family perished 
in the flames or by the tomahawks of the foe. 



88 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

new sect. To their dismay, only two weeks afterward, two 
Quaker women landed in Boston. They had come there 
not for shelter, but to preach the doctrines of their faith. 

The authorities were not to be taken by storm in this 
fashion. The women were hastily put into jail, the books 
they had brought were burned, the windows of their cell 
were boarded up that they might not speak to curious 
listeners, and they w^ere sent back as soon as possible to 
England. 

Persecution of the Quakers. — The Quakers were not so 
easily to be disposed of. Others came and insisted on 
preaching. These were banished on penalty of death, and 
in 1659 two of them, who had returned, w^ere hanged on 
Boston Common. The next year another was hanged, and 
another in 1661.' 

Opposition to the Hangings. — These severe measures 
aroused much opposition. Most of the people of Boston 
objected to the executions, and the magistrates, wiio feared 
an insurrection, did not dare to execute the last who 
were condemned. Quakers afterward were now and then 
whipped or imprisoned, but there were no more hang- 
ings. Charles II. issued an order in 1661 forbidding bodily 
punishment of Quakers, saying that the government had 
gone beyond its authority. 

' The Quakers gave great provocation. Some of them were almost 
insane with religious zeal. Some smeared their faces with black paint 
and ran howling through the streets. Others burst into Puritan meet- 
ings on Sunday dressed in sackcloth and their heads covered with 
ashes, called the ministers deceivers and hypocrites, and bade them to 
come down from their pulpits. Others committed still worse excesses. 

During the persecution the Quakers were punished with fines, im- 
prisonment, flogging, branding with the letter H (heretic), boring 
through the tongue with a hot iron, whipping at " the cart's tail" from 
village to village, and death, but nothing could overcome their zeal. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 89 

Indian Hostility. — Hitherto Massachusetts had suffered 
little from the Indians. As a rule, the English had treated 
them well and paid for their lands.^ But the settlers took 
part in the wars between the tribes, and in this way they 
made enemies of the Narragansetts. The Wampanoags and 
the Nipmucks, their neighbors, also became hostile. In 
1675 a terrible outbreak took place. 

Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, kept faithfully till 
his death his treaty of peace with the English. His son 
Philip — King Philip, as he came to be called — was driven 
into hostility by ill treatment. He believed that the white 
men must be exterminated or the red men would be, and 
under his influence his and the neighboring tribes broke 
into war. 

King Philip's War. — This outbreak began in June, 1675, 
in a sudden attack of the Wampanoags on some villages of 
Plymouth colony, many of whose people were murdered. 
For more than a year the war continued, with desperate 
fighting and terrible excesses. After the Wampanoags were 
put down, Philip led the Nipmucks to deeds of blood, and 
the war extended from the Connecticut River to the vicinity 
of Boston. 

Eesults of the War, — The Narragansetts, as they were 
about to break out, were attacked in their palisaded strong- 
hold and terribly punished, more than a thousand of them 
being slaughtered. Those who were left were sold as slaves 
in the West Indies. In the summer of 1676 Philip was 
killed and the war ended. Twelve towns had been de- 

^ John Eliot, the missionary, translated the Bible into the Indian 
language, and converted many by his preaching. There were four 
thousand Christian Indians in New England in 1674. Schools were 
introduced among them, and many were taught to read and write. But 
in spite of all this many of the Indians hated and feared the whites. 



90 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

stroyed and more than forty others had been scenes of 
fire and bloodshed. A thousand and more men had been 
killed and a great many women and children had perished. 
The Salem Witchcraft. — In 1692 a new horror came 
upon the people of Massachusetts. For centuries before 
there had been a strong belief in witchcraft in Europe, and 
thousands of poor wretches had been put to death in con- 
sequence. It was now claimed that witchcraft had broken 
out in Salem, and great fear and excitement prevailed. 
Some children went into fits, acted oddly, and accused 
several persons of having bewitched them. This gave rise 
to a panic of fear, which became so great that the people 
lost their wits, and before it ended nineteen persons had 
been hanged as witches, and one old man pressed to death 
under heavy weights because he refused to plead either 
" guilty" or " not guilty." After about a year of this mad- 
ness the lost good sense of the people returned, and prose- 
cutions for witchcraft ceased. They continued in Europe 
for many years afterward. Five persons were put to death 
as witches in England in 1722. 

MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

The Northeastern District. — The history of the district 
lying northeast of Massachusetts, now forming the two 
States of Maine and New Hampshire, was in colonial times 
closely related to tliat of the Massachusetts colony. Here 
Sir George Popham, as already stated, tried to form a col- 
ony in 1607. The first permanent settlement was made, 
probably in 1626, at Pemaquid Point, betAveen the Ken- 
nebec and Penobscot Rivers. 

Gorges and Mason. — Shortly after the founding of 
Plymouth two Englishmen, Sir Ferdinando Gorges (gor'jSz) 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 



91 



and Captain John Mason, obtained a grant of the region 
lying between the Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers. After 
estabhshing some fishing villages they divided their claim, 
Mason taking the country 
west of the Piscataqua 
River, which he named 
New Hampshire, after 
Hampshire, his home in 




New England and New Netherland. 



England. Gorges took the territory east of this river, and 
named it Maine (perhaps as the " main" land, to distinguish 
it from the coast islands). 

Settlements in Maine. — A few settlements in addition to 

Pemaquid were "made on the coast of Maine, — Saco and 

' Biddeford in 1630, and Portland in 1632. But Gorges did 

oot concern himself about the country, and his heirs sold 



92 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

it to Massachusetts in 1652. It remained a part of Massa- 
chusetts until 1820, when it became a separate Stale. 

New Hampshire. — The first settlement in New Hamp- 
shire was a fishing village at Little Harbor, near Ports- 
mouth, in 1623. A settlement was made at Dover about 
the same time. Exeter was settled by followers of Mrs. 
Hutchinson in 1638, and Hampton by other people from 
Massachusetts. In 1641 these four towns were added to 
Massachusetts, but in 1679 Charles II. separated them, and 
made of them, with the country in the interior, the royal 
province of New Hampshire. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Roger Williams. — Wo have already stated that Roger 
Williams, when banished from Massachusetts, made his 
way southward through the wilderness to what is now 
Rhode Island. He was joined by five friends, who in 1636 
built themselves homes at the locality called by him Provi- 
dence. Here, in 1639, Williams founded the first Baptist 
church in America. 

Towns Founded. — In 1638, Mrs. Hutchinson, also ban- 
ished for her religious opinions, founded with her friends 
the town of Portsmouth, on an island which soon gained the 
name of Rhode Island, afterward the name of the whole 
colony. William Coddington and others soon afterward 
founded the town of Newport, and in 1643, Samuel Gorton, 
a man of such odd ideas that no settlement would have 
him, started the town of Warwick. 

The Rhode Island Charter. — Roger Williams made it 
known that there would be no religious persecution in 
Providence, and persons from all quarters made their way 
to his settlement. He shared with them the lands he had 
obtained from the Indians, reserving only two small fields 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 93 

for himself. In 1644 he went to England and obtained 
from the king a charter which united the various settle- 
ments into one province, entitled " The Incorporation of 
Providence Plantations in the Narragansett Bay of New 
England." 

The New Charter. — A new charter was obtained from 
Charles II. in 1663, in which the name " Rhode Island and 
Providence Plantations" is used. This charter was so 
liberal in its provisions, and gave such independent powers 
of legislation and suffrage, that no new form of government 
was asked for when the colonies became free, and it con- 
tinued in force until 1843. It was then abrogated on 
account of its property qualification for suffrage.^ 

Religrious Liberty Decreed. — On the return of Williams 
a new set of laws was adopted guaranteeing freedom of 
faith to all. It was " the first legal declaration of liberty 
of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America." The 
new laws protected " Papists, Protestants, Jews, or Turks" 
in their religious faith, a freedom which drew to the settle- 
ment not only many who wished for liberty, but some who 
wished for license. As a result Rhode Island had trouble 
from those who took advantage of its liberality. 

The Charter Lost and Regained. — Andros, the tyran- 
nical governor of New England, of whom we shall speak 
in the next section, obtained possession of the charter of 
Rhode Island, but after his expulsion the colony regained 
the rights given it by Charles II. and kept them until it 
obtained fuller rights as a result of the Revolution.^ 



' Only the eldest sons of voters were given free suffrage. All others 
had to possess a certain amount of property. As a result two-thirds 
of the people were disfranchised. 

* Rhode Island, being formed of two colonies, had two colonial 
capitals, Providence and Newport. It retained these two capitals until 



94 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

CONNECTICUT. 

The Valley of the Connecticut. — The Connecticut 
(Indian for " Long River") attracted by the beauty and 
fertility of its valley both the Dutch of New Amsterdam 
and the English of Plymouth. The Dutch, who had formed 
the colony which afterward became New York, claimed 
this territory, established trading-posts along the river, and 
built a fort in 1633 where Hartford now stands.^ In the 
same summer a- small ship from Plymouth came to the 
mouth of the river. The Dutch ordered the mariners to 
turn back or they would fire on them ; but the Pilgrims 
sailed on and the Dutch did not fire. The Pilgrims built a 
house where Windsor now stands and began to trade with 
the Indians. 

Settlements. — It w^as the fur-trade which brought these 
settlers. Both parties wished a monopoly of this rich 
traffic, but the English succeeded in obtaining it. In 1635 
immigration became active. Settlers from near Boston 
founded the towns of Wethersfield and Windsor. Hartford 
was also founded after the Dutch had left. 

The occasion of the Dutch leaving their fort was the fol- 
lowing. The Earl of Warwick had obtained a grant of the 
Connecticut Valley. This he had assigned to Lord Say- 
and-Seal, Lord Brooke, and others. In 1635 these proprie- 

1900, when Newport ceased to be one of the State capitals. This 
is an interesting^ fact in view of the accompanying circumstance that 
Rhode Island is the smallest of the States. Connecticut, the next in 
size with the exception of Delaware, had two capitals till 1873. 

' The Connecticut River was discovered by Adrian Block, a Dutch 
captain, in 1614. Dutch traders soon sought its banks. They ill- 
treated the Indians and were obliged to build a fort for their protec- 
tion, on which they mounted two cannon. Future colonists suffered 
from the savages on account of this ill-treatment. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 95 

tors sent out John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop, 
of Massachusetts, to form a settlement. He built a fort al 
the mouth of the river, M^hich shut out the Dutch from 
their post at Hartford and obliged them to abandon it. 
This fort he called Saybrooke, after the names of his tw^o 
patrons. 

Settlers Come from Massachusetts. — The next year 
(1636) a party of more than one hundred started from 
Nev^town (now Cambridge), Massachusetts, for what was 
then called " The West." They travelled on foot through 
the wilderness, driving one hundred and sixty head of 
cattle and a drove of hogs. They were led by their pastor, 
the Rev. Thomas Hooker, a Puritan leader who believed 
in government by the whole people, in opposition to 
Governor Winthrop, who believed in the government of 
the few. Two weeks through the woods, without roads or 
bridges, brought them to Hartford,' where they joined the 
small settlement already made. 

The Pequot War. — The settlements named had been 
hardly formed before war with the Indians broke out. 
The Pequots were the leading tribe of that region, and 
were fiercely hostile to the whites, a number of whom they 
murdered. They tried to get the Narragansetts to join 
them in a general war against the English, but Roger 
Williams sought the chiefs of the Narragansetts and per- 
suaded them to remain at home. The Pequots, there- 
fore, began their work alone, selecting the exposed and 
weak settlements on the Connecticut for their murderous 
raids. 

No general attack was made, but the savages skulked 

^ It was called Newtown till 1637, when the name Hartford was 
adopted, after Hertford, in England. 



96 THE ER^, OF SETTLEMENT. 

round the settlements, waylaying and slaughtering incau- 
tious settlers. Some of their captives were burnt alive and 
otherwise tortured. This continued until thirty settlers 
had been killed. 

The Indian Strong-hold Attacked. — In the spring of 1637 
the English determined to put a stop to these slaughters. 
Captain Mason, at the head of seventy men, set out toward 
the Pequot stronghold. He was joined by Captain Under- 
bill with twenty men from Massachusetts, and by seventy 
Mohegan warriors, hereditary foes of the Pequots. The 
greater part of the latter were gathered in their fort on the 
Mystic River, a circular stockade to which they trusted for 
safety. 

It proved a weak defence. The English approached it 
an hour before dawn (June 5, 1637). The Indians were 
asleep. A barking dog awaked them, and the cry of 
" Owanux ! Owanux !" (Englishmen) came from the sen- 
tinel. It came too late. The two entrances to the strong- 
hold were already in the hands of the foe. Mason, seizing 
a firebrand, hurled it among the wigwams. The dry mate- 
rial caught fire, and in a few minutes flames were sweeping 
through the encampment. So rapid was the progress of 
the fire that the English themselves were in serious peril. 
The few Indians who escaped were shot down, only five 
escaping. More than four hundred perished in the fort. 
The remainder of the tribe fled in terror for the Hudson 
River, but were pursued and nearly all slain. Almost in a 
day the Pequot tribe, deemed invincible by their fellow- 
Indians, was destroyed. It was no doubt largely due to 
this example that there was no other Indian outbreak until 
King Philip's war, nearly forty years afterward. 

New Haven Colony. — During these events a large com- 
pany of Puritan immigrants arrived from England, led by 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 97 

their pastor, Rev. John Davenport. Many of them were 
Mrealthy, and they wished to form a httle state of their 
own, with no law except what could be found in the Bible.^ 
In the spring of 1638 they reached a pleasant harbor on 
Long Island Sound, where they founded the town of New 
Haven. Milford, Guilford, and Stamford were afterward 
founded, and these towns combined to form what became 
known as the New Haven colony. In 1644 the Saybrook 
settlement joined the Connecticut to form the Connecticut 
colony, composed of Hartford and the other towns on the 
Connecticut River. 

Systems of Government. — While the New Haven colony 
formed its law on the Bible, and, like Massachusetts, per- 
mitted only church members to vote, the Connecticut col- 
ony, adopting the liberal views of Thomas Hooker, gave all 
freemen the right to vote. This principle was embodied in 
1639 in a written constitution, the first known in history 
formed by the people for their own government. This 
instrument made no mention of the English king or 
company. It was in effect the constitution of a separate 
republic. ' 

The Charter of Connecticut. — In 1662, Charles II. granted 
a charter to Connecticut which guaranteed all the rights 
claimed in the constitution adopted by the colonists. It 
was the most favorable charter granted to any colony, and 
gave Connecticut independent powers of government, the 
king reserving no rights of appointment or legislation. By 
this charter the territory of the colony was extended west- 
ward to the Pacific. It was so liberal in its provisions that 
it continued in force until 1818. 



* They would not accept trial by jury, because the laws of Moses 
did not have it. ' See page 473. 



98 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

THE CONFEDERATED COLONIES. 

A Defensive Union. — In 1643 the colonies of Plymouth, 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven formed a con- 
federation for defence against the Dutch and Indians, under 
the name of "The United Colonies of New England," 
Rhode Island was not admitted, there being much ill feeling 
against the people of that colony, whose doctrine of religious 
liberty did not please the Puritans. ^ 

In this same year the rebellion against Charles I. broke 
out in England, and the emigration of the Puritans ceased, 
they being occupied at home in fighting with the king. At 
that time New England had a population of about twenty- 
six thousand, of whom five thousand had been born there. 

The King-'s Purpose. — In 1636, Charles I., angry at the 
way the people of Massachusetts were governing themselves, 
decided, as we have said (see page 85), to deprive them of 
their charter and rob them of their lands. War at home 
put an end to this scheme, and the people of New England 
were let alone during the years the king was fighting for his 
throne. He was defeated and beheaded, and Cromwell, the 
Puritan leader, became ruler in England. After his death 
Charles II. became king, and then fresh troubles began. 

Charter DiflBculties. — The New Haven colony was sup- 
pressed by order of the new king^ and annexed to Con- 

* See page 474. "^ In this colony dwell Goffe and Whalley, two 
of the judges who had sentenced Charles L to death. Tliey had heen 
generals in Cromwell's army and sought shelter in America when 
Charles IL came to the throne. They were known as regicides 
(king-killers), were diligently hunted, and took refuge in New 
Haven, where they were aided by the people. On one occasion 
they hid under a bridge, while their pursuers rode liercely 
overhead in pursuit. For a long time they remained hidden 
in a cave. They were never caught, and spent the rest of their 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 99 

necticut.^ Rhode Island and Connecticut were given new 
and very liberal charters. Massachusetts again came near 
losing her charter, because she refused to let the Church of 
England be established in her territory. But the king had 
enough to do at home, and did not take up his quarrel with 
Massachusetts till 1679, when he made a royal province of 
New Hampshire, and bade Massachusetts not to interfere 
with Maine, which she had purchased from the heirs of 
Gorges. The quarrel went on until 1684, when the king, 
who had grown very angry with the Massachusetts Puritans, 
pronounced their charter of no effect. 

This destroyed the government which had existed since 
1629. Before he could arrange a new one the king died, 
and his brother, James IL, came to the throne. At once a 
period of tyranny began which threatened the colonies with 
the loss of their cherished liberty. 

The Andros Tyranny. — James II. sent over Sir Edmund 
Andros, one of his favorites, to govern New York and New 
England. He was given absolute powers, and ordered to 
seize the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island. He 
sent orders for the delivery of the charters, but failed to 
receive that of Connecticut. Then, in 1687, he marched 
from Boston to Hartford, attended by a strong body-guard, 



lives in safety. The story is told that during King Philip's war, when 
the Indians made an attack on Hadley, Massachusetts, an old man 
with long white heard suddenly appeared and led the villagers against 
them, driving them back in defeat. It was the regicide, General Goff'e, 
who had been concealed in the house of their minister. The people 
looked on him as an angel come to their rescue. This is the tradition ; 
it is not sure that it ever happened. 

' The capitals of the two colonies, Hartford and New Haven, were 
retained as capitals of Connecticut until 1873, since which date Hart- 
ford has been the sole capital. 



100 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



and imperiously demanded that the charter should be 
given into his hands. 

The Charter Disappears. — Tradition tells a romantic 
story of what took place. While a long debate was going 

on in the assembly cham- 
ber, with the charter 
lying on the table and 
Governor Andros in the 
chair of state at its 
head, the lights in the 
room were suddenly put 
out and the party left 
in complete darkness. 
They were lighted again 
as quickly as possible, 
but the charter was gone. 
It had been seized, it is 
said, by Captain Wads- 
worth, who left the hah 
by door or window, and 
hid it in the hollow of 
an old oak-tree, which 
afterward was famous 
as the " Charter Oak." 
Andros, furious at this, pronounced the charter govern- 
ment at an end, and wrote the word " Finis" at the close 
of the minutes of the assembly's last meeting. 

The Old Governments Restored. — It was not long after- 
ward when James II. was driven from his throne and Wil- 
liam III. became King of England. As soon as this news 
reached Boston, in April, 1689, the people rose in rebel- 
lion, threw Andros into prison, and restored their ohi gov- 
ernment. In Hartford the hidden charter was brought 




Pl.AClNC; THE (HAKTKR IN TlIK OAK. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 101 

out again, the assembly met, and the " Finis" was erased 
from their minute-book. As for Rhode Island, its govern- 
ment had not been disturbed. 

King William's System. — In 1692, King William took 
New England in hand. Connecticut and Rhode Island 
were allowed to keep their charters and elect their gov- 
ernors. Massachusetts retained her old system of govern- 
ment, but the king ordained that others besides Puritans 
might preach, vote, and hold office, and that the governors 
should be appointed by the crown.^ 

A New Charter. — Massachusetts received a new charter, 
uniting the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Maine, and 
Nova Scotia, — which was then in English hands. But this 
charter so restricted the power of the people that the colony 
was really a royal one. From that time on trouble ruled. 
The people were never content with their royal governors. 
Quarrels began between governor and legislature, and the 
spirit of opposition continued until 1775, when the reign of 
royalty in America came to an end. 

* An interesting story is told concerning one royal governor. In 
1693, Governor Fletcher, of New York, was given command of the 
militia of Connecticut. Fletcher made his way from New York to 
Hartford, summoned the militia, and began to read to them his royal 
commission. In a moment Captain Wadsworth, of charter oak fame, 
ordered the drums to be beaten. Fletcher commanded silence, and 
began to read again. " Drum !" cried Wadsworth, and the noise was 
renewed. "Silence!" shouted Fletcher, and it ceased. "Drum, I 
say !" cried the captain, and, timing to Fletcher, he said, meaningly, 
" If I am interrupted again I will make the sun shine through you in a 
minute." The governor left the remainder of the commission unread, 
and made his way in defeat back to New York. 



102 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

3. NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 

NEW NETHERLAND. 

Dutch Trading'-Posts. — The discovery of Hudson River 
by Henry Hudson was soon followed up by the enterprising 
people of Holland, in whose service he had sailed. It had 
been found that the Indians possessed valuable furs, which 
they would be glad to exchange for articles which the Dutch 
made in abundance. So it was not long before that active 
commercial people sent vessels across the ocean to trade for 
furs. One came in 1610 and others the next year, and 
about 1614 a trading-post, composed of a few huts, was 
built on an island at the mouth of the river. On this island, 
which the Indians called Manhattan, afterward arose the 
city of New York. Trading-stations were built up the 
river also, and where Albany now stands a wooden 
" strong house," called Fort Nassau, was built. The whole 
country was named New Netherland, after Netherland, 
the official title of Holland, 

Settlements Made. — A colony was sent out in 1623, and 
small settlements were made on the Hudson, which the 
Dutch called the North River, and on the Delaware, which 
they called the South River. A settlement was also made 
on the Connecticut. Most of the colonists, however, went 
to Albany, where they built Fort Orange, to replace the old 
Fort Nassau. A new Fort Nassau was built on the Dela- 
ware, just below where Camden now stands. 

New Amsterdam. — Peter Minuit was sent out as gov- 
ernor in 1626 to take charge of the settlements, which were 
growing prosperous from their rich fur-trade with the In- 
dians. He took the wise course of buying Manhattan Island 
from the original owners. It came very cheap, being paid 



NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 103 

for with beads, buttons, and cloth, worth in all about twenty- 
four dollars. It would not be easy to state how many 
millions it is worth now. He built there a fort, a ware- 
house, and a cluster of log huts, and made it his seat of 
government. It was at first called Manhattan, its Indian 
title, but was afterward named New Amsterdam. 

The Fur-Trade. — The great interest in New Netherland 
was the fur-trade. Farming was neglected. It was a much 
easier road to riches to buy valuable furs with cheap trinkets, 
or such useful tools to the Indians as knives and hatchets. 
The Dutch were wise enough to take no land from the sav- 
ages without paying for it, and to make a treaty with the 
Iroquois, the powerful confederacy whose tribes held most 
of the country west of the Hudson. This treaty was sacredly 
kept by the Indians, and greatly helped to give prosperity 
to the new settlements. 

Great Estates. — The New Netherland Company was or- 
ganized in 1614. It was eager to bring settlers into the 
country, and offered to any member who would bring or 
send out fifty settlers the valuable prize of an estate with a 
front of sixteen miles on the Hudson or other river. Nothing 
was said about how far it might run back. If estates were 
taken on both sides of the river they were to be eight miles 
wide. But it was- wisely required that the new owners 
should pay the Indians for the land taken. 

The Patroons. — These proprietors were called " pa- 
troons." Their estates were like little kingdoms. They 
held courts of their own, and lived like the barons of 
Europe in the olden times. One of the patroons, named 
Van Rensselaer [rhi'sH-lh-), had an estate near Albany ex- 
tending twenty-four miles on each bank of the Hudson and 
twice that distance back. It was added to till it became 
much larger than the whole colony of Rhode Island. Over 



104 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

these great estates, inhabited by emigrants and slaves, the 
patroons reigned sole lords, their will being the only law. 

An Indian Massacre. — Some of the Algonquin Indians 
near New Amsterdam were badly treated by one of the 
Dutch governors, and in consequence broke out in 1643 in 
a sudden insurrection. Many of the settlers were killed, and 
a war was started which lasted till 1645, and nearly ruined 
the colony. Fortunately for the Dutch, the Iroquois con- 
tinued friendly. These shrewd savages had learned enough 
now to trade furs for muskets and ammunition, which they 
used against their French foes in Canada. 

The Last Dutch Governor. — In 1645 a new governor of 
New Netherland was appointed, the famous Peter Stuyvesant 
[stVve-sdnt). He was the fourth and last, and the most hon- 
est and sensible governor of the province. Being a one- 
legged veteran, he wore a wooden leg bound with silver, 
which gained him the name of " Old Silverleg." 

Stuyvesant was arbitrary and hot-tempered, but was de- 
termined to keep order in the colony. Liberty to vote their 
own taxes was demanded by the people, but stoutly resisted 
by the governor. Freedom of worship was likewise int^- 
fered with. The Dutch Protestant Church was the established 
religion, and no one was permitted to preach or listen to 
other doctrines under heavy penalties. Some Quakers who 
entered the colony were cruelly treated. It is true that 
orders came from Holland that every one should be free to 
worship as he pleased, but the tyrannical governor was too 
far off to be easily dealt with, and he interpreted these 
orders as best pleased himself. 

New Amsterdam. — At that time there Avere about one 
thousand persons in New Amsterdam, partly made up of 
English and French, and many of them negro slaves. They 
occupied the south end of the island, and Stuyvesant had 



NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 105 

a high and strong palisade built across from river to river, 
as a defence against possible Indian raids. This ran along 
the line of what is now Wall Street, one of the money 
centres of the world. The city grew rapidly under his 
rule, its wealth and population greatly increasing. 

New Sweden. — In 1638 a colony of Swedes was planted 
on the Delaware, their settlement being called New Sweden. 
A fort called Christina was built by them near the site of 
Wilmington. This region, however, was claimed by the 
Dutch, and in 1655 Stuyvesant sent some armed ships 
there, took possession of the Swedish settlements, and 
annexed them to New Netherland. 

The Coming of the English. — All the land thus occupied 
by the Dutch was claimed by the English, under the far-off 
discovery of the Cabots. The claim was not a very sound 
one, as the discovery had not been followed by settlement, 
but the Hudson River country was of great importance, and 
Charles II. coolly made a present of it to his brother James, 
Duke of York, despite the fact that Eng- 
land and Holland were at peace and 
that the Dutch had long possessed it. 

One day in 1664 an English fleet 
suddenly appeared off New Amster- 
dam and demanded its surrender. Gov- 
ernor Stuyvesant was furious. He 
swore he would never surrender. But 
he was taken by surprise, his military 
force was much smaller than that of peter stuyvesant. 
the English, and the citizens, hoping to obtain more liberty 
under the English, refused to aid him. So, despite his oath, 
he was forced to submit. The Dutch flag was hauled down, 
the English flag was run up, and New Amsterdam became 
New York, — so named in honor of the new proprietor. 




106 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

Holland got possession of the province again in 1673, 
during a war with England. But in 1674 it was surren- 
dered by treaty to England, and remained thereafter under 

English rule. 

NEW YORK. 

The People's Rights. — With the coming of the English 
it was supposed by the people that a representative gov- 
ernment, like those of the other English colonies, would 
be established. But the new governors kept up the old 
methods, and wiien the people protested against being 
taxed without a voice in the matter, the protest was burned 
by the common hangman. 

A Royal Governor. — One of the early governors w^as 
Edmund Andros, who afterward played the tyrant in New 
England. But he proved such an autocrat that he was 
called home again, and in 1683 the Duke of York permitted 
the people to elect an assembly of their own. This liberty 
did not last long. The duke became king, as James II., in 
1685, and New York was made a royal province. At once 
he took away the privilege of voting and the right of print- 
ing, and sent back the tyrant (now Sir Edmund Andros) 
as governor, making him governor also of New England. 
Andros, however, spent most of his time in Boston, Francis 
Nicholson acting as deputy governor in New York. 

A Change in Affairs. — In 1689, when William III. be- 
came king and after Andros had been imprisoned and 
expelled, a change took place in New York affairs. There 
were now two parties in the city, — the aristocratic, com- 
posed of the patroons, officials, and rich merchants, and 
the democratic, composed of the poorer people. At the 
head of the popular party was a German merchant named 
Jacob Leisler. The people were suspicious of the purposes 
of the aristocrats, and, under Leisler, rose in arms, captured 



NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 107 

the fort, and drove Nicholson from the city. Then Leisler 
dispersed the council and set up a government of his 
own. 

Leisler's Rebellion. — For two years Leisler was ruler 
ni New York, and became so arbitrary as to make enemies 
in his own party. But in 1691 a new governor, Henry 
Sloughter, was sent out. His lieutenant, Ingoldsby, arrived 
first, and summoned Leisler to surrender the city. Leisler 
refused because Ingoldsby could show no authority for his 
action. Disputes followed, and finally a fight, in which 
some of the king's troops were killed. 

The next day Governor Sloughter arrived, and Leisler, 
deserted by his followers, was arrested on the charge of 
treason. He was tried, found guilty of treason, and 
hanged. This act of unjust severity was bitterly resented 
by the popular party, who looked upon Leisler as a martyr 
in the cause of liberty, and long continued in opposition to 
their rulers.^ 

Later History. — The new governor was soon succeeded 
by Governor Fletcher, an arbitrary ruler, of whose attempt 
to gain control of Connecticut we have already spoken. 
He repelled a French invasion from Canada, but was sus- 
pected of favoring the pirates who then infested the seas,^ 



* Sloughter did not propose to execute the prisoner, but Leisler's 
enemies succeeded in making him drunk at a dinner-party, got him 
while in this state to sign the death-warrant, and hung Leisler before 
the governor had recovered his sober senses. 

* The ravages and cruelties of the pirates became so great that Lord 
Bellamont determined to suppress them. A swift and strong vessel 
was fitted out, and William Kidd, a Scotch ship-master in New York, 
was sent on a cruise against these sea-robl)ers. After a time he turned 
pirate himself, and committed many bold depredations. Rashly going 
ashore at Boston, he was recognized and arrested. He was sent for 

8 



108 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

and was succeeded in 1698 by the Earl of Bellamont, under 
whose jusler rule New York became more peaceful. 

Under the succeeding governors the liberties of the 
people steadily advanced. One governor, Rip Van Dam, 
tried to prevent free speech by arresting the editor of a 
paper, but the prisoner was set free by a jury. The contest 
between the governors and the people long continued, but 
with every contest the democratic party gained strength. 

NEW JERSEY. 

Early Settlements. — The Dutch claimed the New Jersey 
region as part of New Netherland, established a trading- 
post at Bergen about 1618, and built Fort Nassau, nearly 
opposite Philadelphia, soon afterward. When the Duke of 
York became proprietor, he granted this region to Lord 
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, naming it New Jersey, in 
honor of Carteret, who had been governor of the English 
island of Jersey. The first settlement was made in 1665 
at Elizabethtown, so named after Carteret's wife. 

Proprietary Government. — The liberal terms offered by 
the proprietors soon brought settlers, among them some 
Puritans from New England, who founded Newark in 1666. 
But trouble arose with former settlers, who objected to 
paying rent. As a result the governor was driven out and 
another chosen by the people, and Berkeley's proprietor- 
ship was made so unpleasant that in 1674 he sold his 
half of the province, the western, to two Quakers, named 
Byllinge and Fenwick. Ir: 1675, Fenwick formed a settle- 
ment in the southern section which he named Salem. Two 
years afterward, William Penn and other Quakers bought 

trial to London, and hanged there in 1701. He was believed to have 
buried great treasures somewhere on the coast of Long Island Sound, 
and credulous people often sought in vain for this buried wealth. 



NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 109 

Byllinge's share and founded Burlington. Treaties were 
now made with the Indians, the land was paid for, and 
peace prevailed. 

The Province Divided. — At the suggestion of the new 
proprietors, the province was divided into East and West 
Jersey, Carteret holding the former, the Quakers the latter. 
In 1681, William Penn and eleven others bought East Jer- 
sey from the heirs of Carteret, the whole province thus 
falling into the hands of the Friends or Quakers. In 1685 
a large number of Scotch Presbyterians emigrated to the 
new province. 

Andres Governor. — In disregard of the rights of the 
proprietors. New Jersey was included in the first governor- 
ship of Edmund Andros. The people resisted his encroach- 
ments, and were sustained in England. In consequence a 
popular assembly met at Salem in 1681, and formed a code 
of laws for the province. 

When James II. became king, and Andros was again 
made governor, new troubles arose, and the people of New 
Jersey lost their home government. From that time till 
1702 there was no regular government in that colony. 

A Royal Province. — In 1702 the proprietors, weary of 
the many disputes which had arisen about titles to land, 
withdrew from the contest and surrendered their rights to 
the English crown. East and West Jersey were then united 
as a single royal province, which was placed under the 
governor of New York, but retained its own assembly. 

Dissatisfaction soon arose with the tyranny of the New 
York governors, and a separate government was earnestly 
requested. This was granted in 1738, Lewis Morris being 
appointed governor of New Jersey by the king. The last 
royal governor of the province was William Franklin, son 
of Benjamin Franklin. 



110 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

4. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. 

First Settlements. — On the Delaware River (so named 
from Lord Delaware, the first governor of Virginia) lay a 
valuable section of territory, which was successively claimed 
by several nations. The Dutch early claimed it, and 
planted a small colony in Southern Delaware, near the site 
of Lewes. After some years this settlement was attacked 
and destroyed by the Indians. 

In 1638 came the Swedes, who bought land from the 
Indians, calling the country New Sweden. A settlement 
was made near the site of Wilmington, called Christina, and 
a fort was built on Tinicum Island. In 1655 these settle- 
ments were captured by the Dutcli, who claimed this terri- 
tory as their own. Finally, in 1665, after New York had 
been seized by tlie English, this country on the Delaware 
was claimed as the property of the 
Duke of York. 

William Penn's Purpose. — The 

l)ersecution in England of the sect 

calling themselves Friends, but usually 

known as Quakers, caused many of 

them to look to America as a place of 

refuge, and New Jersey was largely 

settled by them. In these settlements 

William penn, Age 21. William Pcnu, a leading Quaker, was 

deeply interested, and he now decided to form a colony of 

these persecuted people in accordance with views of his 

own.^ 



' William Penn was born in London in 1644. His father. Admiral 
William Penn, gained celebrity in fhe naval wars between the English 
and the Dutch, but the son, while at Oxford, came under the influence 




PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. HI 

How the King Paid his Debts. — He had inherited from 
his father, Admiral Penn, a claim on the government for 
sixteen thousand pounds. This he was not hkely to get in 
money, so he asked the king, Charles II., who was his per- 
sonal friend, to pay him by a grant of land in America. 
The king willingly complied, glad to get rid of his debt so 
easily, and Penn became proprietor in 1681 of a tract pf 
forty-eight thousand square miles of wilderness lying west 
of the Delaware River.^ This the king named Pennsylva- 
nia, or " Penn's Woodland." The Delaware territory, then 
claimed by the Duke of York, was granted by him to Penn, 
as a part of his American domain. 

Penn's Charter. — The charter conveying Pennsylvania 
to William Penn was liberal in its provisions, but less so 
than in the case of the New England and Maryland char- 
ters. It required that the laws passed by the assembly 
should be approved by the king, and the British govern- 
ment retained the right to tax the province. 

Emigration to Pennsylvania. — Emigrants were sent out 
immediately to the new province, nearly thirty vessels 
reaching there in the first year (1681). Some of the colo- 

of the Friends, and was expelled in consequence. He was sent by his 
father to Paris, where he became an accomplished man of the world. 
Afterward, however, though an intimate friend of the king and his 
brother, he became a Friend, so greatly displeasing his father that he 
was turned out of his home. He was several times imprisoned for 
his belief, but strongly asserted in the courts the principle of religious 
liberty, and travelled through parts of Europe preaching his faith. 
He became heir to a considerable fortune on the death of his father, 
but lost heavily through his colonizing experiment, and was eventually 
imprisoned for debt. He died in 1718. 

^ In further return for his grant, Penn agreed to give the king 
annually two beaver-skins and one-fifth of all the gold and silver that 
were mined. 



112 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



nists spent the winter at a Swedish settlement on the 
Delaware called Upland, since known as Chester. The 
site of a new city had already been chosen, on the tract of 
land between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, and the 




Early Philadelphia. 



city named and planned. It was named Philadelphia, a 
Bible name signifying " Brotherly Love." The streets were 
to be broad and to cross each other at right angles, and the 
principal ones to be named after the trees of the forest. 
Here many of the emigrants spent their first winter in holes 
dug in the river- bank for shelter. 

Penn Seeks his Colony. — In 1682, Penn himself crossed 
the ocean in the ship Welcome, bringing with him a com- 
pany of a hundred colonists of his own faith to found the 
city of Philadelphia. He first landed at New Castle, in f' • 
territory granted him by the Duke of York. Here he was 
presented with a piece of turf in which was a twig, to 
signify that the land and its products were his, and with a 
dish of water, to signify that he owned the river. Finally 
he was given the keys of the fort. 

The Great Law. — Proceeding to Upland, which he named 
Chester, he called an assembly, and with its aid enacted 
the " Great Law," that by which the new colony was to 
be governed. The principal features of this law were the 
following : 



PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. 



113 



Every man was free to worship God in what manner his 
conscience demanded, though only behevers in Christ could 
vote or hold office. 

The death penalty was restricted to two crimes, murder 
and treason. 

Every prison was to be made a workshop and place of 
reformation, — a distinctly new idea in prison management. 




Penn's Treaty with tttr Tnt>tans. 



The people were to be free to make their own laws, with 
the understanding tliat they agreed to obey the laws they 
made. 

The proprietor, or his deputy, the governor, was to pre- 
side over the assembly. 

Treaty with the Indians. — Penn, despite the king's grant, 
tlid not feel that he owned the land till he had bought it cf 



114 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



its true proprietors. He made an amicable settlement with 
the few Swedes who occupied the site of Philadelphia, and 
purchased the Indian claim to the territory. 

There is a tradition that he held a council with the In- 
dians under a great elm-tree near the city. Here a treaty 

of peace and good-will 
was made, presents were 
exchanged, and the In- 
dians were paid for their 
land. No oath was taken. 
Each party trusted the 
word of the other. Yet 
the treaty was held sa- 
cred for the sixty years 
during which Quaker 
rule continued in Penn- 
sylvania.' 

Growth of the City. 
— No other colony grew so rapidly as Pennsylvania. Settlers 
were attracted by the cheapness and fertility of the land, the 
free government, and the absence of persecution, and in a 
few years Pennsylvania became one of the most important 




Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. 



^ " It was the only treaty never sworn to and never broken," Vol- 
taire has said. Thougli the Indians waged war with the colonies, they 
sought to shed no drop of Quaker blood. "We will live in love with 
William Penn and his children as long as the sun and moon shall 
ehine," they said. The Indian record of the treaty is still preserved. It 
is a belt of wampum having on it the picture of a white man and an 
Indian clasping hands. The elm, under which tradition says the treaty 
took place, continued to stand in Kensington, the northeast section of 
the city, till 1810. It was then blown down, and its site is now marked 
by a monument and a small public park. While the British held 
Philadelphia during the Revolution a sentinel was stationed here to 
prevent the soldiers from cutting down the tree for firewood. 



PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. 



115 



of the colonies. When Penn sailed for England in 1684 he 
left behind him a prosperous colony of seven thousand per- 
sons. Fifty townships had been settled and there were over 
three hundred houses in Philadelphia, Among the settlers 
was a company of Germans, who had bought a large tract 
of land. One of their first settlements on this was called 
Germantovvn (now a part of Philadelphia). Many Friends 
from Wales also came and settled north and west of the city. 

Penn's Troubles. — In 1692, Penn lost his province and 
was imprisoned, being suspected of sympathy with James 
II., then in exile, but it was restored 
to him in the following year. He 
came out again in 1699, finding the 
colony very prosperous, but the 
colonists eager for greater privi- 
leges. He therefore granted them 
a new and more liberal constitu- 
tion, and reformed affairs in various 
directions. He returned to England 
in 1701. In after-years he had 
much trouble in regard to rents due 
from the settlers, and fell so heavily 
into debt that he was obliged to 
mortgage his province. For some 
time he was imprisoned for debt. 

Worn out with these misfortunes, he was on the point of 
selling his province to the crown, when he was stricken with 
paralysis and became incapable of transacting business. 

Later History. — Penn's sons inherited his province on 
his death in 1718. Their policy was much less just and 
liberal than his, and constant irritation succeeded. The 
disputes continued until the war of the Revolution, during 
which the State of Pennsylvania purchased the interest of 




Proprietary Seal of Penn- 
sylvania. 



116 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

the proprietors for the sum of six hundred and fifty thou- 
sand dollars. 

Delaware. — During Penn's absence after his first visit the 
" Three Lower Counties on the Delaware," the grant re- 
ceived from the Duke of York, became dissatisfied and with- 
drew from the union with Pennsylvania, Penn giving them 
a lieutenant-governor of their own. They were reunited 
by Governor Fletcher, of New York, who governed Penn- 
sylvania in 1693, during Penn's brief removal. Other dis- 
putes arose, and in 1703 the proprietor gave Delaware a 
separate assembly, though one governor ruled both colonies. 
This arrangement held good till 1776, when Delaware was 
organized as a separate State. 

5. MARYLAND. 
The Principle of Toleration. — Almost at the same time 
that Roger Williams was leaving Massachusetts to found a 
new^ colony where all should have free- 
dom of worship, a new colony was 
being formed farther south with the 
same principle in its charter. It was 
founded by a Catholic nobleman of 
England, George Calvert, Lord Balti- 
more. He had been a member of the 
London Company, and after its disso- 

Fron. original en..avin, in posse,. I»ti0n 3. pUrpOSe arOSC iu his luiud tO 
siou Maryland Historical society. egt.^Jj|jg|^ ^ COlOUy of lliS OWn, lU whlcll 

CEciurs Calvert, •' ' 

(Second) Lord Baltimore, members of his church, then ill-treated 
in England, might have full liberty of worship. 

A Locality Chosen. — His first plan was to found a colony 
in Newfoundland.^ But finding the climate there too severe. 

' Lord Baltimore formed a small settlement called Ferryland in 
Newfoundland ia 1621. He visited this in 1627 and again in 1628, 




MARYLAND. 117 

he sailed to Jamestown, where he soon discovered as much 
intolerance as he had left at home. Repelled from this 
locality, he made his way up Chesapeake Bay and explored 
the country north of the Potomac. The country and climate 
here seemed to him delightful, there were no settlers to in- 
terfere with his plans, and he fixed on this region as the 
scene of his experiment. 

Lord Baltimore's Charter. — Returning to England, he 
applied to Charles I. for a charter for the proposed colony. 
This the king readily granted, and gave to the region the 
name of Maryland in honor of Henrietta Maria, his queen. 
Charles not only granted the territory, but gave Lord Balti- 
more unexampled powers, making him almost a king in his 
new domain. He was styled " Lord Proprietary" of Mary- 
land, and in the charter was privileged to coin money, 
create courts, appoint judges, confer titles of nobihty, and 
summon a representative assembly, whose laws did not 
need to be approved by the king, but only by the proprie- 
tary. The sole right to lay taxes was given to the assembly 
and its lord governor. 

No other British subject had ever received such exten- 
sive privileges, while the only payment demanded for the 
land was two Indian arrows yearly, and one-fifth of all the 
gold and silver mined. The latter was a dead letter here 
as in Pennsylvania, as no gold or silver was ever found in 
either of these colonies. 

A Settlement Formied. — George Calvert died before the 
charter was issued, and it was made out in the name of 
his son, Cecilius Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore. His 
brother, Leonard Calvert, brought over a colony of about 



remaining there till the autumn of 1629, when the bleakness of the 
climate forced him to withdraw. 



118 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

three hundred people in the sprinp: of 1634, and landed 
with them near the mouth of the Potomac, on the northern 
bank of which the town of St. Mary's was founded. 

Religious Freedom. — It had been made known that 
absolute freedom of worship would be granted in the new 
colony to all Christians. This did not go so far as the 
toleration of Roger Williams, who gave religious freedom 
to all, Christian and pagan alike, but it was a degree of 
liberty then utterly unknown in Europe, and one which 
attracted many persons of liberal opinions. There were 
about twenty gentlemen of wealth in the colony, most of 
them Catholics,' but the other settlers were probably nearly 
all Protestants. Father White, a priest who came with 
them, converted the wigwam of an Indian chief into a 
chapel, and thus established the first English Catholic 
church in America.^ 

Progress of the Colony. — From the beginning the peo- 
ple took part in making the laws for- their own government, 
and in a few years were given the power of originating 
these laws. This combined political and religious freedom 
proved very attractive, and the colony grew rapidly in 
wealth and population. The cultivation of tobacco, which 

^ A tax of twenty pounds a month was at that time imposed on 
all Catholics in England who did not attend Church of England ser- 
vices. This exaction, equivalent to several luyidred dollars of present 
money, was ruinously severe. liord Baltimore would not have been 
permitted to form a colony of intolerant Catholics, and was obliged to 
grant religious liberty. 

■^ This colony escaped the suffering experienced in several others. 
The Indians had been about to vacate their lands, on account of perse- 
cution by a stronger tribe, and willingly sold them to the settlers. 
These lands were in condition for planting, and the Indian methods 
of cultivation were taught the new-comers, so that they early raised a 
crop of corn. 



MARYLAND. 119 

had proved so profitable in Virginia, was begun here, and 
soon became a source of prosperity. Grain replaced tobacco 
in the interior, commerce grew, and towns began to be 
formed. Providence, a settlement of Puritans, afterward 
had its name changed to Annapolis, and became the capital 
of the province. Baltimore, named from the proprietors, 
was founded in 1729, soon became an important town, and 
in time grew into one of the most active Atlantic seaports. 

The Clayborne Troubles. — Early in the history of Mary- 
land trouble began. Before Lord Baltimore received his 
charter a Virginian named William Clayborne had formed 
a post for the fur-trade on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay. 
This was within the limits of Maryland, but Clayborne 
refused to recognize the authority of Governor Calvert, and 
appealed to arms in defence of his claim. A fight ensued 
in consequence, blood was shed, and Clayborne was driven 
out. 

Renewal of Troubles. — About ten years afterward, in 
1645, the quarrel was renewed. Many Puritans, drawn by 
the toleration of the Baltimores, had now settled in Mary- 
land, and manifested there a spirit very different from that 
shown toward them by the proprietors. Civil war had 
begun in England between the Puritans and the king, and, 
taking advantage of this, Clayborne stirred up the Maryland 
Puritans to an attack on the Catholics. 

"War in the Colony. — Warlike conditions succeeded, 
and for two years the colony was in a turmoil. Governor 
Calvert was forced to flee ; but he returned in 1646 with 
a strong force, and Clayborne was in his turn expelled. In 
1654 civil war again began, and Clayborne and the Puritans 
were victorious. Commissioners were now sent over from 
England, who expelled the proprietor's deputy and replaced 
him by a new governor. They then called an assembly, 



120 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

for which they forbade any Catholic to be a candidate, or 
even to vote. This assembly went so far as to repeal the 
act of toleration which had been passed by the assembly of 
1649, and to prohibit Catholic worship in Maryland. It 
declared that Lord Baltimore had no longer any rights in 
the colony. 

Lord Baltimore Restored. — The dissensions continued 
until finally settled by Oliver Cromwell, then ruler in Eng- 
land. He carefully examined the case and restored the 
government to Lord Baltimore. This ended the trouble 
for the time, freedom of worship w^as re-established, and 
during the next thirty years the colony grew in wealth and 
population. 

The Protestants in Power. — Yet the old religious diffi- 
culty in time reappeared, the adherents of the Church of 
England seeking, after 1676, to oppress all w-ho differed 
from them in religious faith. In 1689, William and Mary, 
the new monarchs of England, came to the throne. They 
were pledged to support the Protestani cause, and severe 
laws were passed against Catholics. The government of 
Maryland was usurped by a Protestant association, and the 
Calverts were robbed of their province. 

Maryland a Royal Province. — In 1691 Maryland was 
declared a royal province, governors were appointed by the 
crown, the seat of government w^as changed from St. Mary's * 
to Annapolis, and the Church of England was declared the 
established church, taxes being laid for its support, though 
it had few members among the population. The Catholic 
worship was forbidden, and was not permitted again in 
Maryland while it remained under English rule. 

' St. Mary's suffered a still more complete decline than Jamestown. 
While the latter has left some relics, scarcely a trace of the ancient 
capital of Maryland remains. 



NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 121 

The Calverts Regain their Rights. — In 1715 the fourth 
Lord Baltimore, who had become a Protestant, and whose 
father had just died, was restored to his proprietary rights, 
and the government again feU to the Calverts, who ruled 
almost ake hereditary monarchs till 1776, when the Dec- 
laration of Independence freed Maryland from the control 
of king or proprietor. 

The Mason and Dixon Line. — The boundary between 
Maryland and Pennsylvania had not been clearly indicated 
in the grants, and for years there were disputes between the 
proprietors of the two regions as to the correct boundary- 
line.^ In the end, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two 
able English surveyors, were appointed to establish the true 
boundary. They were employed in this task from 1763 to 
1767, running a line due west from the northeast corner of 
Maryland nearly three hundred miles. A stone was set up 
at every fifth mile with the coat of arms of William Penn 
cut on the north side and that of Lord Baltimore on the 
south. In after-years that line became famous as the 
dividing line between the free and the slave States. 

6. NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Early Settlers. — The first to form a settlement on the 
coast of Carolina was the Huguenot Jean Ribault, whose 
massacre by the Spaniard Menendez has been already de- 
scribed. He named the country Carolina, after Charles IX. 
{Carolus in Latin) of France. This name was afterward 
adopted by the English in honor of Charles II. of England. 

A century passed after Ribault's time before a settlement 

^ The grant to Lord Baltimore had extended to the sea and covered 
the colony of Delaware. But the claim of the Baltimores on this terri- 
tory conflicted with that of the Duke of York and failed to be estab- 
lished. 



122 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



was made. Some farmers had, however, made their way 
hither from Virginia, and occupied land on the Chowan 
River and Albemarle Sound. With these came rough char- 
acters, who found life in Virginia growing too civilized for 
their taste. There also emigrated hither some Quakers and 
other dissenters, who had been persecuted for their faith 
in Virginia. 

The Lord Proprietaries. — In 1663, Charles II. granted 
the territory between Virginia and Florida to some friends 

who had 
aided in 
liis resto- 
lation, in- 
cluding the 
Duke of 
Albemarle, 
the Earl of 
Clarendon, 
and six 
others. 
The grant included not only 
the Carolinas, but Georgia 
and part of Florida. West- 
ward it extended to the 
Pacific Ocean. The char- 
ter was somewhat similar 
to that which had been 
granted to Lord Baltimore for Maryland, and decreed re- 
ligious liberty to all colonists. This liberality proved an 
important aid to the growth of population. 

Settlements Formed. — In 1663 those settlers already in 
the country were formed into a colony named Albemarle. 
Two years afterward some West India planters settled on 




^'i\)-^x^^''^)st■ Augustine 1565 



The Carolinas and Georgia. 



NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 123 

Cape Fear River/ their settlement being named Clarendon, 
in honor of Lord Clarendon. In 1670 two shiploads of 
emigrants from Etigland settled on the banks of the Ashley 
River, in the southern part of the province. After remain- 
ing there ten years they sought a new location on the pen- 
insula between the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, calling their 
settlement Charlestown, after the king. This in time became 
shortened to Charleston. 

Later Settlers. — The religious liberty existing in the 
province had the effect of bringing thither in 1707 a large 
number of Huguenots, fleeing from persecution in France. 
Tn 1709 a still larger number of Germans, from the Pa- 
latinate, settled at a locality they called New-Bern, from 
Bern, in Switzerland. At a later date many Scotch-Irish 
and Scotch Highlanders sought the North Carolina region. 
These varied settlers became engaged in tobacco culture 
and in the production of lumber, tar, and turpentine from 
the broad forests of yellow pine in the eastern part of the 
province. 

South Carolina. — The settlers who sought the South 
Carolina region were closely similar to those of the north- 
ern section. Huguenots from France came here in large 
numbers after 1685. At a later date there came Germans, 
Scotch Highlanders, and a few Scotch-Irish. Many Dutch 
from New York, dissatisfied with English rule, also came 
hither. 

Rice and Indigo. — Both sections at first grew slowly, and 
the population was much scattered, there being few towns. 
Charleston took its first decided start after 1693. In that 



* They came from Barbadoes and occupied a region which had been 
occupied several y&ars before by people from New England and after- 
ward abandoned. 

y 



124 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

year the governor received a small bag of rice from the 
captain of a vessel from Madagascar, and planted the grain 
as an experiment. It grew so luxuriantly that the culture 
of rice at once began, and proved so lucrative that a large 
population was attracted to the region. In 1741 the culture 
of indigo was similarly tried as an experiment, and with 
equally favorable results,^ At a much later date the cotton 
plant proved superior to either as a source of wealth. 
South Carolina, however, still continues a large rice-pro- 
ducing State. 

The " Grand Model." — An interesting experiment in the 
art of government was made in the Carolina province. 
Instead of the people being given political liberty, as they 
had been in many of the other colonies, a most autocratic 
form of government was adopted. John Locke, the famous 
English philosopher, and Lord Shaftesbury, a prominent 
member of the company, formed in 1670 a constitution for 
Carolina which they called the " Grand Model," because 
they beheved it to embody the most perfect system of 
government that had ever been devised. 

The Rights of the People. — It established a nobility 
and a system of laws which was intended to cover all 
questions that could possibly arise. But it had the serious 
defect of utterly ignoring the rights of the people. They 
were not permitted to vote or to hold land, and could not 

^ Indigo was first planted by the daughter of Governor Lucas. The 
first seed sown was killed by frost. She tried again, and worms de- 
stroyed the young plants. A third time she planted the seeds, and 
this time the plants grew well. The news of her success filled the 
neighboring planters with delight, as indigo at that time brought in 
Europe sometimes as much as a dollar and a half a pound. The culture 
extended till Charleston exported over a million pounds in a single 
year. 



NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 125 

even leave the land they tilled without the permission of 
its noble owner.^ Their children were to be kept in the 
same condition of slavery. 

As the " Grand Model" ignored the people, they in turn 
ignored the " Grand Model." They refused to be bound 
by its regulations, and the proprietaries tried in vain to 
put it into effect. Contest and turbulence succeeded and 
continued for twenty years. Governors were driven out 
and popular governors appointed, and a state of rebellion 
existed, partly due to the heavy taxes laid by the pro- 
prietaries, who looked on the colonies mainly as sources 
of income. In 1693 the attempt to establish the " Grand 
Model" government was definitely abandoned. 

Division of the Carolinas. — It was soon found that 
Carolina was too large and its settlements too widely sepa- 
rated to be governed as one colony. As a result two 
assembhes were chosen, and there were usually two gov- 
ernors. In 1695, however, John Archdale, a Quaker, was 
sent out as the governor of both colonies. Under his 
wise administration the dissensions ceased and order was 
restored. The quit-rents to the proprietaries, which had 
caused such discontent, were reduced, the colonists- were 
given the right of suffrage, and a new era of prosperity 
began for the colonies. 

Royal Provinces Established. — New troubles came, 
however, in later years, and the proprietaries, growing 
weary of the incessant complaints and disorders, sold in 

^ There was to be a nobility having different ranks, — proprietors, 
landgraves or earls, caciques or barons, and lords of manors, — each 
noble to own an estate in proportion to his rank. Persons holding 
fifty acres were freeholders, with the right to vote. The tenants and 
laborers were to be like the mediaeval serfs. The plan was absurdly 
unsuited to the colonizing of a wilderness, and necessarily failed. 



126 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

1729 their rights to the crown. From that time forward 
the Carolinas were royal provinces. They were now for- 
iiiahy divided into two colonies, as they had practically 
been before, and were thereafter known as North and 
South Carolina. 

Indian "Wars. — The Carolinas did not escape contests 
with the Indian owners of the land. A powerful Indian 
tribe called the Tuscaroras, a member of the Iroquois 
family, though long separated from its northern kindred, 
occupied the territory of North Carolina, and was naturally 
dissatisfied to see this increasing horde of whites making 
way into its native realm. In 1711 the Tuscaroras broke 
upon the settlements, captured and burned to death the 
surveyor-general of the colony, and in one night slaughtered 
one hundred and thirty whites. The savages destroyed all 
before them along Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds, and 
ceased their murderous work only when subdued by a 
strong party of whites and friendly Indians from South 
Carolina. In the following year another outbreak took 
place. It ended in the complete subjection of the Tusca- 
roras. Eight hundred of them were taken and the re- 
mainder driven from the country. They made their way 
north, and joined their Iroquois brethren in New York. 
These, who had previously been called the " Five Na- 
tions," were afterward known as the " Six Nations." 

7. GEORGIA. 

Oglethorpe's Project. — The original grant to the propri- 
etaries of the Carolinas embraced the region between South 
Carolina and Florida. This remained unsettled, and re- 
verted with the Carolinas to the crown. In 1732 a grant 
of it was made for twenty-one years to General James Ogle- 
thorpe, a benevolent Englishman, who had a double pur- 



GEORGIA. 



127 



pose in view. One of his purposes was to plant a military 
barrier between South Carolina and Florida that would 
check the forays of the Spaniards and Indians. The other 
was a scheme of benevolence. 

Imprisonment of Debtors. — 
It was the law in England at 
that time to imprison insolvent 
debtors, many of whom lay long 
in durance. There were thou- 
sands thus confined, many of 
them honest unfortunates, im- 
prisoned often for very small 
debts, and cruelly treated. Ogle- 
thorpe had seen much of the 
misery of these poor captives, 
and his heart was moved to do 
what he could to help them. He 

proposed to pay the debts of the most deserving, transport 
them and their families to America, and give them an 
opportunity to make a fresh start in life. He offered an 
asylum also to all who were poor and unfortunate, or ill- 
treated on account of their religious belief. 

A Colony Formed. — The proposed colony was named 
Georgia, after George 11., from whom the grant came. The 
first emigrants were sent out in 1733, and settled on the 
Savannah River, naming the place Savannah. The colony 
of debtors was quickly re-enforced by an immigration of the 
persecuted Moravians and Lutherans of Germany and of 
Scotch Highlanders, who formed other settlements.^ 




jAjras Oglethorpe. 



' For a whole year Oglethorpe lived in a tent, set up under four pine- 
trees. Despite the king's grant, he looked on the Indians as the owners 
of the land, and paid them for it. In consequence his relations with 



128 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

Georgian Industries. — Plantations of rice and indigo 
were soon started, and the lumber-trade became brisk. Mul- 
berry-trees grew wild in the forest, and great hopes were 
entertained of developing the silk industry/ Some progress 
was made in this direction, but in the end cotton replaced 
silk, a^ a more profitable product. 

Restrictive Laws. — Oglethorpe and the associates who 
had joined him in the enterprise followed the plan adopted 
by the proprietaries of Carolina, of providing the colony 
with a ready-made constitution ; and with the same result. 
All laws were to be made by the company, and the people 
were deprived of self-government. Women, since they 
could not do military service, could not inherit land, and 
the area granted to men was small. No Roman Catholic 
was allowed to settle in the colony. The importation of 
spirituous liquors was forbidden, and slavery was prohibited. 

Georgia Becomes a Royal Colony. — These laws proved 
inapplicable to the situation, and before many years were 
all repealed. They had acted to check the development 
of Georgia, which prospered after their repeal. In 1752 
the province was surrendered to the crown, and remained 
a royal colony till the Revolution. 

The Wesleys and Whitefield. — On the second visit of 
Oglethorpe to his colony, in 1736, he was accompanied by 
John and Charles Wesley, the founders of Methodism. It 
was their purpose to attempt the conversion to Christianity 
of the Indians. Another noted Methodist, the Rev. George 
Whitefield {wMt'field), came out afterward and established 

them were always friendly. Oglethorpe lived to see Georgia an inde- 
pendent State, not dying till 1785, in his ninety-seventh year. 

' A silk dress was made for the queen out of the first silk exported. 
The silk-culture was kept up until the Revolution, hut never proved 
v^ry profitable. 



LOUISIANA. 



129 



an orphan asylum near Savannah/ It was largely due to 
his efforts that the purchase of negro slaves was allowed. 
The prohibition seemed to him very injurious to the inter- 
ests of the colony. 

8. LOUISIANA. 

The French in the South- 
west. — Though this section 
of our work has been de- 
voted to the history of the 
English colonies, it seems 
necessary at this point to 
speak of the movements of 
the French in the South- 
west, following the explora- 
tion of the Mississippi by La 
Salle. 

In 1699 they founded the 
colony of Biloxi, on the coast 
of the Gulf of Mexico. Fif- 
teen years afterward an ex- 
pedition ascended the Mis- 
sissippi to the present site 
of Natchez and built Fort 
Rosalie. Several settlements 
were also made farther east, 
including Fort St. Louis and 
other posts on the Alabama 
and Tombigbee Rivers, and Mobile, which was founded in 
1701, and became the capital of the province. 

^ He was a preacher of wonderful eloquence, and made his way 
through the colonies preaching to audiences of many thousands of 
people. By means of contributions received from these he supported 
his orphan asylum. 




French Settlements in the West and 
South. 



130 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



New Orleans Founded. — In 1718, New Orleans, the first 
permanent settlement in the present Louisiana, was laid out 
by a party of colonists. It was named after the Duke of 
Orleans, then regent of France. Though it began in a 
humble way, the commercial advantages of its situation 
were so evident that in 1723 it replaced Mobile as the capital 
of the province. 

The Mississippi Scheme. — In 1716 an adventurous spec- 
ulator named John Law obtained from the Duke of Orleans 

a charter for a project Avhich 
was to enrich France. A com- 
pany was formed which obtained 
grants of the colonial posses- 
sions of the kingdom and control 
of the foreign trade. Inexhaust- 
ible mines were to be opened 
in Louisiana, and all connected 
with the company were to be 
enriched. All classes vied in 
the purchase of shares, which 
rose to sixty times the original 
price. In 1720 the bubble burst, 
the mines were shown to be imaginary, and heavy losses 
fell upon the credulous people of France. For years after- 
ward the development of the colony was checked. 

Progress of Louisiana. — At this time Louisiana had sev- 
eral thousand inhabitants. Rice was the principal crop, 
tobacco and indigo were grown, and slave labor was em- 
ployed. Grain for food was brought down the river from 
the growing settlements in the north. 

An Indian war arose from an attempt of the French at 
Fort Rosalie to seize the principal town of the Natchez In- 
dians. The latter rose and massacred the whites at the 




Costumes of French Settleks. 



CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 131 

settlement (1729). Shortly afterward a force from New 
Orleans attacked the Natchez, killed many of them, and 
dispersed the rest, utterly breaking up the tribe.' 

9. CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE 
COLONIES. 

NEW ENGLAND. 

Religious Strictness. — The conditions of society differed 
considerably in the different colonies, both on account of 
difference in climate and in the original opinions and cus- 
toms of the colonists. In New England religious observ- 
ances were rigidly strict. In the early days the people 
were called to church on Sunday morning by the beating 
of a drum. In other cases the sound of a horn or bell re- 
minded them of a duty which could not be neglected with- 
out punishment. 

Going- to Churoh. — The church, in exposed villages, was 
surrounded with a stockade and served as a fort, the men 
walking to church with their guns on their shoulders, and 
keeping them within easy reach during the sermon. The 
church edifices, of course, improved in appearance as time 
went on, but continued bare and unornamented. The 
benches were rude and hard, and there were no means of 
heating other than by heated stones or hand-stoves which 
the worshippers brought with them. 

^ This-was an unfortunate event for research into Indian history and 
habits. The Natchez were a most interesting tribe, differing from all 
others in the United States region. They formed an absolute monarchy, 
and worshipped the sun as a deity, their kings being considered descend- 
ants of the Sun-god. They had temples on mounds, and an elaborate 
system of religious worship and ceremony. It seems probable that 
they may have been a remnant of the Mound-Builders of the North. 



132 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

The Church Service. — Inside the church the worshippers 
were separated, the old people, the young men, and the 
young women having each a fixed place. The boys sat on 
the pulpit stairs and in the gallery, and were kept under 
the watchful eyes of the constable. Sleeping was not per- 
mitted, even under the infliction of a sermon hours in length. 
The constable, whose duty it was to keep the congregation 
awake, carried a staff with the foot of a hare on one end 
and the tail on the other. A nodding woman was reminded 
of her duty by feeling the hare's tail gently brush her cheek ; 
but a boy caught asleep was roused by a sharp rap on his 
pate from the hare's foot. 

Keeping the Sabbath. — No one was permitted to work, 
ride, or amuse himself on Sunday. It was unlawful to sit 
in Boston Common on that day, or to walk in the street 
except to church, A man was publicly whipped for shoot- 
ing fowl on Sunday. A woman was threatened with ban- 
ishment for smiling in church. A person absent from 
church for more than one Sunday was in danger of being 
fined, whipped, or set in the stocks.^ Swearing was pro- 
hibited in nearly all the colonies, and in New England a 
split stick was sometimes placed on the swearer's tongue. 

Houses. — The early dwellings were log huts, one story 
high, with steep, thatched roofs. Some few were of brick 
or stone, two stories high. The chimneys at first were 

' Hobert Pike, the sturdy opponent of uitclicraft, had urgent busi- 
ness one Sunday which called him from home. As the New England 
Sunday began at six o'clock Saturday evening and ended at the same 
hour on Sunday, he waited impatiently for the close of the day that 
he might be off. The sun sank into a bank of clouds, and, taking this 
as a good excuse for sunset, he mounted his horse and rode away. But 
the sun was not down, and as he rode past the house of an unfriendly 
neighbor its" tell-tale beams shone through a rift in the clouds. The 
next day Mr. Pike found himself fined for travelling on Sunday. 







:i^-^ ... 



A Block-House. 



CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 133 

made of wood smeared with clay. In later days the farm- 
house was generally built of huge timbers, hewed or split, 
and covered with rough 



clapboards. The upper 
gtory often projected, so 
that the inmates could 
fire down on Indians if 
attacked. 

Cooking, — In the 
kitchen of the later and 
larger houses yawned a 
huge stone fireplace, 

heaped in winter with blazing logs that served alike for cook- 
ing and warming. Swinging cranes bore pots over the fire, 
and cooking was also done with the aid of spits and skillets 
on the hearth. Some houses had brick ovens, which were 
heated with blazing wood, and retained the heat for hours. 
In these bread was baked, the ashes being first swept out. 

Furniture. — Oiled paper often took the place of glass in 
the windows, and when glass was used the panes were small 
and diamond-shaped.^ Furniture was scanty and largely 
home-made. Carpets were almost unknown, the floors 
being often covered with sand, which was swept into orna- 
mental designs in the best room. Clocks were rare, and 



' In England, at the time of settlement of the American colonies, 
the walls were plastered only in the houses of the rich. Glass win- 
dows were then so valuable that when a country gentleman went to 
town for a length of time he took the sashes out of their frames and 
packed them carefully away. Beds in that day for the poor were of 
straw, with fagots for pillow^: Fingers were the only forks. Me- 
chanics lived largely on oat and rye bread. Millers who stole grain 
and dishonest tradesmen generally were fastened in carts and driven 
through the town to be hooted at and pelted by the populace. 



134 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 




Pioneer Dwelling. 



tlie houses were built so as io fare exactly soutli. The 
inmates knew that it was noon when the sun shone 

squarely in. 

Kitchen and Best 
Room. — The kitchen, 
with its cheerful fire, its 
low ceiling with bare 
joists, from which hung 
bunches of herbs and 
strings of drying ap- 
ples, the occasional tall 
wooden clock, dresser 
set with pewter dishes, spinning-wheel, and occasionally a 
loom for weaving, was the living-room of the house, in 
which cooking, eating, working, and social converse went 
on. 

The best room w^as used for state occasions, and usually 
was kept in almost total darkness. A sanded floor, traced 
in quaint designs, shining brass andirons, high brass candle- 
sticks, a few books and family portraits, made up the usual 
ornaments of the room. For light, home-made tallow can- 
dles were employed. In the kitchen the blazing logs served 
for illumination. 

Houses of the Wealthy. — In and near the towns and 
on the few great estates there were many large and costly 
houses, on some of which great sums were spent. These 
were of brick or stone, richly panelled within, wainscoted 
with mahogany or other hard woods, expensively furnished, 
hung with pictures, and adorned with tapestry instead of 
the later method of plaster and wall-paper. It must, how- 
ever, be said that the houses of that period were very cold 
in winter, being heated only by a wood fire on the hearth. 
We hear complaints of ink freezing in the bottle, and even 



CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 135 

on the pen while writing. Certainly our ancestors pos- 
sessed a very moderate standard of comfort. 

Food. — Food was of little variety. Fresh meat was rare. 
Salt pork, beef, and fish formed the winter stand-by. To 
these were added rye and Indian bread and cakes, wheat 
being too dear for general use. Porridge for breakfast and 
mush for supper were common dishes. Vegetables were 
few. Tomatoes, now so common, were grown in gardens 
under the name of love-apples, and believed to be poison- 
ous. Ice was unused, the well or spring-house serving for 
cooling purposes. Tea and coffee were little used. 

Dress. — The Puritans dressed quite plainly, and very 
differently from what we do now. The Puritan gentlemen 
wore knee-breeches and short cloaks, with ruffs about 
their necks and steeple-crowned hats. They had rich 
belts, gold and silver buttons, and high boots rolled over at 
the top for great occasions. The women wore homespun 
dresses during the week, and silk hoods, lace handker- 
chiefs, and other finery on Sunday. 

The poorer classes dressed very plainly. Workingmen 
wore breeches of leather or coarse cloth, jackets of red or 
green baize, and leather aprons. On Sunday their clothes 
were better, but of the same character of material. On the 
contrary, lace ruffles at the wrist, gold lace on the silk or 
velvet coat, a gold-headed cane, and a gold or silver snuff- 
box were necessities of the fashionable gentleman's best 
attire. 

Laws about Dress. — The law forbade any one to wear 
clothes of a character beyond his or her rank in life. In 
1640 the constables of every town were bidden to observe 
all who dressed beyond their condition and order them to 
appear in court. It seems strange in these days of per- 
fect liberty in dress that there was a time in this country 



136 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 




UOSTUMES OF THE PURITANS 



when people were punished for dressing beyond their 
means. We are told of one Alice Flynt, who was found 
wearing a silk hood, and was required 
to show that she was worth the neces- 
sary two hundred pounds. No one 
having less than this was permitted to 
wear " gold or silver lace, or any lace 
over 2s. per yard." 

Distinctions of Rank. — The social 
grades then prevalent in England were 
manifested in this country, decidedly 
so in the South, and to some extent in 
democratic New England. Official 
positions were held by a few families, 
and were transmitted from father to 
son. The distinctions between rich and poor w^re not con- 
fined to dress. There were no orders of nobihty, but the 
titles of Mr. and Mrs,, now so common, were then given 
only to clergymen and magistrates, and to people high in 
position. All olhers, except servants, were addressed as 
Good-man, or Good-wife. Few were honored with the title 
of Esquire. 

Amusements and Drinking Habits. — Amusements were 
very simple. Daiicing and card-playing were forbidden, 
and there was little music. Such a thing as a theatre was 
unknown. Hunting, fishing, and out-door sports formed the 
staple of enjoyments. 

In later days dancing and feasting became more common, 
and the list of amusements included quillings, huskings, 
spinning-bees, sleigh-rides, picnics, and parties of various 
kinds. The holidays were thanksgiving and fast days, elec- 
tion and training days, all, except fast day, being largely 
given up to athletic or other out-door sports. Weddings 



CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 137 

were made times of feasting and enjoyment, and even 
funerals were followed by elaborate feasts. In time Thanks- 
giving-day became the great day for family gatherings and 
feasts. 

Liquor Sellmg. — In early New England only men of good 
character could keep a tavern, and they were forbidden to 
sell liquor to habitual drunkards. In early Connecticut no 
one under twenty was allowed to use tobacco, and none to 
use it more than once a day. These laws, however, proved 
ineffective, and drinking became comraon. Much beer and 
cider were drunk, and the importation of rum from the 
West Indies became a thriving business. 

Penalties for Law-Breaking. — The laws were severe and 
the penalties cruel. Imprisonment for debt was common. 
The stocks and pillory were freely used for small offences, 
men having their feet, hands, or neck fastened in wooden 
frames and being thus exposed to public scorn. It was the 
custom to make the offence and punishment as public as 
possible. A common scold was sometimes gagged and 
seated before her door. In Virginia and some other colo- 
nies there were ducking-stools, and the scold was dipped 
into a stream or pond. 

The whipping-post was in frequent requisition, often for 
offences which now are not considered crimes. An offender 
might be made to stand on a stool in church with the name 
of his misdemeanor displayed on his breast. Among the 
common punishments were cropping or boring the ears and 
branding with a hot iron. At one time there were twelve 
offences in New England punishable with death. In Virginia 
there were seventeen.^ 



' Respect for parents was absolutely required. In the strict letter 
of the law disrespect to parents might be punished with death. One 



138 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

Voting ; Military Service. — In town-meeting voting was 
done with corn and beans. A grain of cotn meant a vote 
in favor of the measure ; a bean was a vote against it. 

Every man and boy past the age of sixteen had to drill as 
a soldier. Matchlocks — or guns fired with a slow-burning 
match — were the only kind in use. Long afterward a flint 
and steel were employed to make a spark and set fire to the 
powder. Each soldier carried a rest, on which he placed 
the end of his heavy gun when taking aim. Some wore 
helmets and breastplates, others coats quilted with cotton- 
wool, through which an Indian arrow would not pass. No 
farmer went into his field to work without his musket. The 
colonists were always on guard against the savage foe. 

THE MIDDLE COLONIES. 
Dutch New York. — Much of what has been said of New 
England will apply to the other colonies, but each had cus- 
toms peculiar to itself. The Dutch houses in New York 
were built like those of Holland, of wood or small black and 
yellow bricks, with gable ends facing the street. They were 
generally one and a half stories high. The front door had 
a great brass knocker, kept highly polished, while scrubbing 
and scouring went steadily on. The floors were covered 
with white sand, which was swept into lines and patterns 
with the brooms. Outside was the " stoop," or fixed bench, 
a favorite evening seat. Each family had its cow, pasturing 
in a common pasture, but making its way home with tink- 
ling bell at the milking-hour. 

John Porter, of Salem, who abused his father, was made to stand 
on the gallows with a rope around his neck, and was soundly whipped, 
fined, and imprisoned. He was saved from death only by the en- 
treaties of his mother. Another offender was chained to a post and 
forced by the whip to work for the benefit of the public. 



CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 139 

Within the Houses. — The great open fireplaces were 
ornamented with colored tiles. In the cupboards were 
much old silver and china. The whirr of the spinning- 
wheel tbrnied the hdusehold music, and each mansion had 




Scene in New Amsterdam. 

its huge chest of linen woven by the women. On the great 
manors of the patroons were mansions that vied in costli- 
ness and elegance with the best of those in Europe at that 
day. 

Modes of Life. — The Dutch took life easy. They w^ere 
fond of good eating and drinking and enjoyed playing at 
various games. Many of our present customs came from 
them. New-Year visiting is one of these. The Santa Claus 
celebration at Christmas is another. A third is the practice 
of coloring eggs at Easter. We also owe our doughnuts, 
crullers, and New-Year cookies to the Dutch housewives. 

Dress. — The dress was very peculiar. The men wore 

10 



140 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 




Dutch Settlers. 



sovi>ral pairs of knee-breeches, one over the other, which 
gave then) a very baggy appearance. Large buckles were 
worn at the knees and on the shoes, 
and their coals had great brass or 
silver buttons. The women wore a 
number of short and bright-colored 
skirts, with stockings of various colors, 
and high-heeled shoes. The head- 
dress was a white muslin cap. 

Life in Philadelphia. — riilladel- 
phia was the largest city in America 
until long after the Revolution. It 
was laid out by William Penn in 
streets crossing each other at right 
angles, like those of ancient Babylon. There were many 
comfortable dwellings, usually two stories high, the streets 
were shaded with trees, and there were gardens and orchards 
around the houses. It was thus a " fair greene country 
town," as Penn wished to make it. Some of the sidewalks 
were paved with flag-stones, then very rare in cities. 

The city was noted for the abundance of its fruits. A 
German traveller remarked that the people fed their pigs 
on peaches, and cared less for the tuiest fruits than the peo- 
ple of Europe did for their turnips. 

Shops.^The ordinary dwelling-houses served for shops, 
with something hung over the door to show what was for 
sale within. A basket, a beehive, a wooden anchor, or some 
such object was all the sign needed. The people were 
very quiet and sober, and did not care much for amuse- 
ments. 

People of Many Nations. — The population of the city 
and colony included people of various nations, such as 
English, Swedes, Dutch, Germans, Scotch, and Irish. There 



CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 141 

were thus several languages spoken, and customs derived 
from different nations were introduced. 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES. 

Plantation Life, — In the South large plantations replaced 
the populous towns and villages of the North, and the modes 
of life differed accordingly. The planters, as they grew 
wealthy from the sale of their crops of tobacco, built them- 
selves large mansions, handsomely furnished and orna- 
mented. Within were broad stairways, and mantels and 
wainscots often of richly carved mahogany. The furniture 
was of solid oak and mahogany. Gold and silver plate often 
was visible in abundance on the sideboards, there being 
frequently an ostentatious display of wealth. 

Each mansion had its numerous household of negro ser- 
vants. The field hands had their separate quarters, each 
hut with its garden and poultry-yard. Most of the articles 
needed on the estate 

were made by the . - _-__-^5-^^Sl;?^?^ . -^^ 

slaves. 

Lavish Mode of Life. 
— The great planters 
lived like lords, keeping 
stables of fine horses 
and parks of hunting- 
dogs, while they went 
to church or made vis- 
its in great coaches 
drawn by six horses. 
There were negro ser- 
vants ready to do all labor, so that it was considered de- 
grading for a white man to work. 

Hospitality. — The warmest hospitality was displayed. 




Colonial Fireplace. 



142 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 



Life in those great mansions was often dull, and a traveller 
was a prize. News journeyed slowly, and important events 
were often learned only from some loquacious guest. A 
servant was sometimes posted on the high-road to look out 
for any respectable traveller on horseback. When one such 
appeared, the bowing and smiling negro would invite him to 
stop and spend the night at his master's mansion. Arrived 
there, he would be treated to the best in the house, and 
perhaps have a hunt or other sport got up for his enjoy- 
ment the next day. This hospitality had one bad effect, 
the inns were miserable. The planters robbed the land- 
lords of all profitable custom. 

Dress. — Full dress here embraced 
three-cornered cocked hats, long vel- 
vet coats, with lace ruffles at the 
wrist, knee-breeches, white silk stock- 
ings, and shoes with silver buttons. 
The hair was worn long, powdered 
with white, and tied in a twist or 
queue with a black silk ribbon. La- 
dies also powdered their hair, and 
dressed in rich brocades or thick silks. 
Life moved in a stately, quiet way, 
unlike the present rush. The plant- 
ers, having little to do at home, 
spent much of their time in the performance of political 
duties. 

The Poor Whites. — It must not be imagined, however, 
that this class constituted the total population. There were 
large numbers of what were afterward known as poor 
whites, largely the descendants of indentured servants. 
Many of these lived in a state of degradation, vice, and 
ignorance. There was also a middle class of merchants and 




Costume of English Settlers 
(Genteel Class.) 



CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 143 

traders in the towns. South Carolina, however, possessed 
only two well-defined classes, planters and slaves. 

The Lower Colonies. — In the Carohnas and Georgia 
tobacco was replaced by other crops, but the life of the 
planter was much the same as in Virginia. In all these 
colonies gambling was very common, and constituted one 
of the main features of the horse-racing and cock-fighting 
which were the favorite amusements of the people. 

Back in the country, toward the mountains, the people 
were poor, the land being divided into small farms, while 
many of the inhabitants spent their time in hunting. The 
settlers lived far apart, and their only roads were paths. 
In the woods these were indicated by notches cut in the 
trees. This was called " blazing the way." 

Other Colonial Customs. — Lighting was poorly performed 
in old colony days. Lamps were almost unknown. The 
poorest people burned a wick in a vessel of grease or used 
torches of pitch-pine. Others made candles of tallow. In 
the South the wax of the candle-berry was often used for 
this purpose. The streets. of large towns were poorly lighted 
at night with dim lanterns. Stoves for heating were hardly 
known until a late period. Cooking-stoves were unknown. 
Wood was the only fuel used in houses. Children, and often 
their parents, went barefoot in summer. In the backwoods 
the dress was a loose hunting-shirt of deerskin or homespun, 
with buckskin leggings, moccasins, and fur cap. Workmen 
wore leather breeches until after the Revolution. 

Drinking Habits. — Drunkenness in time became a crying 
evil in the colonies, the use of intoxicating liquors becoming 
almost universal. Whiskey and rum were very freely drunk, 
most men taking five or six glasses a day, many much more. 
Nothing of importance could be transacted without drink. 
A jug of whiskey was supplied to the hands getting in hay. 



144 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 

In raising the timbers of a house or barn a large supply of 
liquor was deemed necessary. No bargain could be made 
without a dram. All classes drank, even the clergy. The 
sideboard with its decanter and glasses was looked upon as 
necessary furniture. This continued until 1826, when the 
temperance movement first actively began. Since then there 
has been a remarkable change in drinking habits. 



PART IV. 

THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 



I. KING WILLIAM'S WAR (1689-1697). 

First Contests of the Whites. — During the early (feys 
of the occupation of America the colonists had mainly the 
savages to deal with as foes. The only contests between 
the whites were that between the Spaniards and French in 
Florida, already described, an attack on the French at 
Mount Desert, Maine, and Port Royal, Acadia, by Captain 
Argall, of Virginia, in 1614, and the capture of Quebec by 
Captain Kirk in 1629, during the war of Charles L with 
France. All these produced no effect, Quebec being soon 
returned, and the situation of affairs left unchanged. Peace 
reigned from 1629 to 1689, when a struggle began which 
was to continue at intervals for over seventy years, and end 
in the expulsion of the French from America. 

A Turning-Point. — The year 1689 was an important 
turning-point in American history. With it began the long 
struggle between England and France for colonial dominion. 
It inaugurated an era of war which continued, with inter- 
missions, for nearly a century, and ended in the indepen- 
dence of the United States of America and the formation 
of a new government in 1789, just a century later. We 
have hitherto had to deal with the story of the thirteen 
colonies separately. We must now deal with them as one, 

145 



146 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

and shall have to speak of events that took place at the 
same time as many of those already described. 

"War in Europe. — In 1689 a war broke out in Europe 
between England and France. It continued until 1697. 
William III. was then on the throne of England, for which 
reason this contest became known in America as King 
William's War. The hostility in Europe extended to 
America, and resulted in frightful massacres by the Indian 
allies of France. 

Frontenac and the Iroquois. — Louis XIV. of France sent 
over Count Frontenac as governor of Canada, with orders 
to 'descend the Hudson and conquer New York. The 
danger was great, for New York was then distracted by the 
Leisler rebellion ; but the invasion was prevented by the 
Iroquois, or Five Nations, who were allies of the English, 
and attacked Montreal in 1689 with such fierceness as to 
keep the French at home. Frontenac's hopes of conquest 
were ruined by this Indian assault. In revenge he invaded 
the country of the Five Nations in 1693, and for four years 
ravaged it so remorselessly that the savages were forced in 
the end to beg for mercy. The Iroquois never fully recov- 
ered from this blow. 

Indian Massacres. — The war on the side of the French 
was confined to Indian raids on the British settlements. 
In February, 1690, a party of French and Indians surprised 
the village of Schenectady, New York, with a iiiidniglit 
attack, and slaughtered most of the inliabitanls. A few 
escaped in their night-clothes, and made their way through 
the freezing winter air to Albany, sixteen miles away. 

During the following years a number of other villages, in 
Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts, met with a 
similar fate. At Durham, New Hampshire, in 1694, more 
than a hundred people were killed, many of them being 



KING WILLIAM'S WAR. 147 

burned alive. The last of these assaults was one made on 
Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1697.^ But all along the bor- 
der midnight attacks, frightful massacres, horrible scenes 
of torture, and the dragging of women and children into 
captivity were frequent occurrences of this terrible war. 
It was wholesale murder, not war, for such ruthless slaugh- 
ter of frontier settlers could be of no possible service to 
France. 

English Reprisal. — The English colonists did not bear 
this infliction without an effort at revenge. In 1690 a 
congress of commissioners from several of the colonies met 
at New York to arrange some plan of attack and defence. 
It was determined to attack the French by land and sea. 

A force of two thousand Massachusetts militia, under Sir 



^ The attack on Haverhill was followed by an event which has 
become famous in historical romance. A farmer named Dustin was 
working in the field with his seven children about him, when he 
heard the dreadful war-whoop of the foe. Seizing his gun, he saw 
that the Indians were between him and his house, so that he was 
obliged to abandon his wife to her fate. Telling the ch'ldren to run 
on, he kept the savages at bay with his gun, and managed to reach a 
fortified house. Mrs. Dustin, who was forced to rise from a sick-bed, 
and her nurse were taken prisoners. With the party was a captive 
boy who understood the Indian tongue, and learned from a talkative 
Indian how to kill and scalp a foe. Mrs. Dustin determined to make 
an effort to escape. There were in the party nine men and boys and 
three women. One night, while they were asleep by their camp-fire 
on an island in the Merrimac, she and her two companions quietly 
arose, and, each taking a tomahawk, in a few seconds crushed in the 
skulls of ten of their sleeping foes. Only one woman and a young boy 
escaped. Scalping the dead men, that they might prove their story, 
the brave fugitives made their way home down a hundred miles of the 
stream. They had been given up for lost. Mrs. Dustin was paid a 
bounty of fifty pounds for the ten scalps, and in honor of her exploit 
received a present from the governor of Maryland. 



148 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

William Phipps, sailed to Port Royal, which it captured, and 
with it the province of Acadia. It then sailed up the St. 
Lawrence and besieged Quebec, while at the same time a 
force of New York and Connecticut troops marched over- 
land upon Montreal. Both these expeditions failed, the 
land one never even reaching Canada. 

End of the War. — Hostilities ended in 1697, and by the 
terms of peace Acadia was restored to France, greatly to 
the displeasure of the Bostonians, who had equipped the 
expedition at great expense, and did not relish being de- 
prived of the fruit of their enterprise.^ 

2. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-1713). 

Hostilities Resumed. — The peace that followed was of 
short duration. In 1701 war was resumed in Europe, and 
began again in America in the following year. It lasted 
till 1713. As William III. died in 1702, this became known 
as Queen Anne's War, after the name of his successor. As 
before, on the French side it was a war of massacre. Two 
frightful scenes of slaughter took place, one at Deerfield, 
Massachusetts, where many were slain and more than a 
hundred carried into captivity ; the other at Haverhill, 
which was again visited "with the horrors of massacre. 

Acadia again Conquered. — In reprisal, an expedition of 
British and colonial troops was sent against Acadia, which 
was once more conquered, while Port Royal a second time 
fell into English hands. Its name was now changed to 
Annapolis, in honor of the queen. This name it still retains. 
An expedition almost seven thousand strong proceeded 
against Quebec, but was checked by a storm at the mouth 

* It was during this war that the superstitious delusion, known as 
the Salem witchcraft, broke out in Massachusetts. 



KING GEORGE'S WAR. 149 

of the St. Lawrence, that destroyed many of the ships and 
drowned a thousand men. 

War with Florida. — During this war Spain was in alh- 
ance with France, and the theatre of conflict was extended 
to the South. In 1702 an expedition from South Carohna 
took and plundered St. Augustine, and in the following year 
the Appalachian Indians of Georgia, allies of the Spaniards, 
were severely punished. A campajgn of reprisal was made 
in 1706, a squadron of Spanish and French vessels ap- 
pearing before Charleston, on which an attack was made. 
The assailants were repulsed with heavy loss. 

An Indian Invasion. — A few years later (1715) a general 
confederation of the Indian tribes was formed, with the 
design of sweeping all the whites of Carolina from the land. 
Their army, seven thousand strong, was met by Governor 
Craven, of South Carolina, at the head of twelve hundred 
men, and completely defeated. 

Acadia Retained. — The English derived one advantage 
from this war. When peace was made, the part of Acadia 
which they had taken was ceded to them. It has since then 
been known as Nova Scotia. Their claim to the possession 
of Newfoundland and the rich fur regions on Hudson Bay 
was also acknowledged. 

3. KING GEORGE'S WAR (1744-1748). 

Events during the Peace. — Thirty years of peace fol- 
lowed. The French made use of it by adding to their line 
of fortified posts in the interior and strengthening their hold 
upon the continent. In the South the settlement of New 
Orleans was made in this interval. The only conflict w,rs 
at the French settlement of Norridgewock, in Maine. The 
French there had instigated the Abenaki Indians to attack 
the New England settlements. In consequence, Norridge- 



150 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

work was attacker] in 17-11 liy a forro of militia and 
destroyed. 

Fresh Hostilities. — Again, in 1743, France and England 
met in war. As before, tliis contest was reflected in Amer- 
ica, where it was known as King George's War, after George 
II., then King of England. It continued five years in Eu- 
rope, but in America was attended by only a single event 
of importance, the capture of Louisburg. 

Assault on Louisburg. — Louisburg, a fortified town on 
Cape Breton Island, was so strong that it was looked upon 
as the Gibraltar of America. France had spent more than 
five million dollars on its fortifications, and believed it to be 
capable of defying any assault. Yet it was taken after a 
siege of six weeks, on June 17, 1745, by four thousand New 
England militia, aided by four British war vessels. There 
was nothing scientific about the siege, yet the provincial 
troops displayed remarkable dash and bravery, and the 
French commander utter incompetence.' 

Results of the Victory. — The capture of Louisburg by 
an army of provincials, untrained in war, filled all Europe 
with astonishment and England and America with delight. 
William Pepperell, the merchant who led the American 
forces, was made a baronet by the king. In the following 
year a powerful expedition sailed from France for the 
reconquest of the fortress. But storms injured the fleet 
and disease decimated the troops, and the enterprise was 
abandoned. 



* The drums that beat their triumphal march as the New Englanders 
marched into Louisburg, June 17, 1745, were the same that beat on 
Bunker Hill during the memorable affair of June 17, 1775, exactly 
thirty years afterward, in which the militia of New England once more 
showed their fighting spirit. 



KING GEORGE'S WAR. 151 

Louisburg Restored to Prance. — To the utter disgust 
of the colonists, however, when peace was made, Louisburg 
was restored to France. The fortress they had so gallantly 
captured was traded away for a city in India of which they 
had scarcely ever heard. 

War with Florida. — King George's war was preceded by 
a war between England and Spain, which broke out in 1739, 
and was attended by some interesting events in the South. 
Oglethorpe, the proprietary of Georgia, invaded Florida in 
the summer of 1740, and laid siege to St. Augustine. He 
failed from want of cannon, and w^as obliged to withdraw. 

Georgia Invaded. — The Spaniards retaliated in 1742, 
invading Georgia with a large fleet and a powerful army. 
They landed on St. Simon's Island, proposing to take Ogle- 
thorpe's forts and conquer or desolate the colony. They 
were met by a much smaller force, but were defeated by 
a shrewd stratagem which caused them to withdraw in 
panic flight. In the following year Oglethorpe repeated his 
attack on St. Augustine. As before, he failed to take it, 
but his vigor put an end to Spanish invasions. 

Results of the Wars. — The wars described, whose hos- 
tilities extended through twenty-five years, had no proper 
reason for existence in America at all. They arose from no 
American need and settled nothing. The colonists suffered 
heavily in life and wealth, while their only gain was the 
peninsula of Nova Scotia and the control of the Newfound- 
land fisheries. They had learned, however, two important 
lessons : that they must protect themselves, since England 
was using them for her own ends, and that their troops 
could safely be trusted to fight side by side with British 
regulars and show equal courage and efficiency. The time 
was at hand when these useful lessons were to be applied. 



152 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

4. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-1763). 

French Enterprise. — The peace in America was brief. 
A home cause of conflict was arising. Colonial jealousy 
between the French and English was soon to break out into 
colonial hostility. For years the French had been pushing 
their way into the interior of the country, building forts as 




English Territory before ths French and Indian War. 

they went, until they had more than sixty military posts 
along their extended line of lake and river. 

The English Keep on the Seaboard. — Meanwhile, the 
English colonies were filling up with settlers far more 
rapidly than the French, but these clung to the seaboard 
region and made little effort to penetrate the interior. 

The Alleghany Barrier. — This was not due to lack of 
enterprise. It arose from the difficulty of the situation. 
While the French were attracted onward by the splendid 
water-ways of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley, 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 153 

the English faced an unbroken wilderness, in whose rear 
lay a broad backbone of mountains, presenting few passes, 
and to be crossed only with great difficulty. The less 
elevated country in the north was closed by the warlike 
Iroquois, friendly, but jealous of intrusion. As a result, 
while English traders and hunters made their way to some 
extent into the wilderness, the bulk of the settlers were by 
no means ready to follow. 

A Change of Purpose. — The time, however, for a change 
had come. The people of the middle colonies in particular 
were considering the occupation of the broad lands beyond 
the mountains, of which pioneer prospectors brought in- 
viting tales. In 1748 a company was organized for the 
purpose of forming settlements in this western country, in 
which the king had granted them a tract of land of half a 
million acres in area. Two of the stockholders of this Ohio 
Company, as it was named, were Lawrence and Augustine 
Washington, brothers of the afterward famous George Wash- 
ington. 

The Owners of the Land. — Both France and England 
claimed this unsettled and untrodden region. France laid 
claim to it by right of discovery. Their explorer. La Salle, 
had first reached the Ohio River. The English claim was 
based on the discoveries of the Cabots, under which charters 
were granted reaching to the Pacific.^ The real owners, the 
Indians, were left out of the account, though with this indif- 
ference to their rights they were far from pleased. " Where 
is the land of the Indian?" they asked. "The English 



^ The English also claimed that they had been granted the Ohio 
Valley region by the Iroquois Indians, who had captured it many years 
before. This claim had as little substantial foundation as most of the 
claims to American land. 



154 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

claim all on one side of the river, the French all on the 
other. Where does our land lie?" 

French Forts. — As this question could not be answered, 
it was ignored, and the invasion went on. The Ohio Com- 
pany sent out surveyors in 1750, who extended their survey 
as far as the site, of Louisville. When word of this came to 
the French they were alarmed. Unless active steps were 
taken they would lose the Ohio country. In 1753 they 
began an active movement toward the contested territory. 
A fort was built at Presque Isle, on Lake Erie, one at Le 
BcEuf (now Waterford), Pennsylvania, and a third at Ve- 
nango (now Franklin), on the Alleghany River, at the mouth 
of French Creek. The Ohio was the goal of these move- 
ments. The French also seized the Ohio Company's sur- 
veyors and destroyed an English post on the Miami. 

Governor Dinwiddle's Message. — Governor Dinwiddle, 
of Virginia, a member of the Ohio Company, perceived that 
some decided action was necessary, and sent a messenger 
in the autumn of 1753 to the French forts, to give warning 
that these encroached on Virginia territory, and to order 
their removal. It was a mission that demanded experience 
and judgment in the envoy, yet the governor selected for 
his agent a young man only twenty-one years of age. This 
youthful messenger had, however, for several years been 
engaged as a frontier land surveyor, and was familiar with 
Indian ways and versed in woodcraft. He also held a 
commission in the Virginia militia. His name was George 
Washington.* 



' George Washington was born at Bridge's Creek, Westmoreland 
County, Virginia, February 22, 1732. His great-grandfather, John Wash- 
ington, had emigrated to Virginia about 1607. As a youth he possessed 
great strength and agility, and was noted for truthfulness and accuracy. 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 155 

Difficulties of the Enterprise. — Youth and strength 
were needed as well as discretion. A winter journey of 
over a thousand miles had to be made through the un- 
broken wilderness. Negotiations with Indian chiefs as well 
as French officers were required, and information of what 
the French were doing and proposing to do was im- 
portant. 

Washington's Journey. — The errand of the young mes- 
senger was well performed, but the French, as was expected, 
refused to retire. They had ready a large number of canoes, 
and were building others, for a further movement down the 
Alleghany in the coming spring, Washington gained much 
information concerning their designs, won the friendship of 
the Indians, and returned in safety after enduring severe 
hardships.' 

When at school he settled all disputes between the boys, and would 
not permit any unfairness. His exercise books are remarkable for 
their neatness and carefulness. The same may be said of his books 
in later days, when he managed his plantation and shipped tobacco 
and flour abroad. It is said that government agents never inspected 
the flour-barrels marked with his name. They knew that there was 
no lie in the Washington stamp. He begun the business of a surveyor 
in 1748, when sixteen years of age. At nineteen he was appointed 
adjutant-general (with the rank of major) in the Virginia militia. 
The prudence, sagacity, and resolution which he showed in his mem- 
orable journey to the French forts were the beginning of his fortunes. 
It was evident to the authorities that he was a man to be trusted with 
important duties. His later history is the history of his country during 
his career. 

^ Washington was obliged to cross swollen streams, to make his way 
through frozen snows, and to travel a long distance on foot through 
the forest, the horses having given out. His journey wa.s an eventful 
one. He and his companion were fired at by an Indian. Reaching 
the Alleghany, they found it full of floating ice, which was running 
swiftly down the stream. Attempting to cross it on a raft, Washington 

U 



156 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 



Fort Duquesne. — Washington had particularly observed 
the location where the Monongahela and Alleghany Rivers 

join to fonn the Ohio. This point, 
where Pittsburg now stands, com- 
mands the valley of the Ohio, and 
was long known as the Gateway 
of the West. He reported it as 
an excellent place for the build- 
ing of a fort, and in the spring of 
1754 a party was sent 
there for that purpose. 
But with the opening of 
spring a strong party of 
French came in canoes 
down the Alleghany, 
drove off the workmen, 
and built a fort for 
themselves, which they 
named Fort Duquesne. 
It was one that was to 
play an important part 
in the history of the 
war. 
The First Conflict. — The Virginians were alert as well as 
the French. A regiment was already marching toward the 
contested spot, with Washington as second in command. 
On hearing of the French action, the young officer hurried 
forward with a reconnoitring party, and soon met a party 
of French skulking in the woods with apparently hostile 




The Fobt Duquesne Campaign. 



fell into the cold flood and barely escaped with his life. The night 
was spent without shelter or fire on an island, but in the morning 
they succeeded in reaching the opposite shore, and completed in safety 
their mid-winter journey. 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 157 

intent. Washington, distrusting their efforts at secrecy, 
ordered his men to fire, and the French leader, Jumonville, 
was slain. Thus was fired (May 28, 1754) the first shot in 
one of the most important of American wars. 

Fort Necessity. — Colonel Frye died on the march, and 
Washington succeeded to the command. Finding the 
French too strong for him, he built a stockade at the Great 
Meadows, which he named Fort Necessity. Here he was 
attacked by a strong body of French and Indians, and 
after a severe fight was forced to surrender on July 4, 
being granted the honorable terms that he and his men 
should return home with their arms and effects. 

The First American "War. — In this way began the first 
truly American war. It was no echo of European conflicts, 
like the former wars, but arose in the colonies themselves, 
as the natural resultant of the growing jealousy and desire 
for empire of the French and English colonists. Instead of 
growing out of a European war, it gave rise to one which 
began two years afterward. 

England Sends Aid. — As soon as tidings of this conflict 
crossed the ocean, both England and France prepared to 
come to the aid of their colonies. England sent General 
Braddock, an officer experienced in civilized warfare, but 
wofully ignorant of Indian fighting, with two regiments of 
regular soldiers. To these he added a force of Virginia 
militia, and began in the summer of 1755 a march through 
the forest towards Fort Duquesne, Washington going along 
as a member of his staff.' 

' Braddock spent months on the way, making roads as he went, and 
wasting much valuable time. Yet with ordinary prudence the fort might 
easily have been taken. It contained few French, and the Indians were 
in no good humor for fighting. It was a question whether they should 
flee or fight. The excellent opening which was left for an ambuscade 



158 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 



Braddock's Defeat. — Benjamin Franklin had warned 
General Braddock of what he had to expect in Indian 
warfare. Washington and other officers repeated the warn- 
ing. But Braddock was obstinate and opinionated. He 




BRABnocK's Defeat. 

gave his advisers to undc^rstand that these lurking savages 
would not stand long before British regulars, and marched 
on in disciplined array. 

At length the over-confident army reached a point ten 
miles from the fort. Here the regiments entered a deep 
ravine, whose hill-sides were thick with underbrush. Sud- 



decided the chance in favor of the latter. Thus the conceit and obsti- 
nacy of one man led to serious consequences for thousands. 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 159 

denly t.lie war-whoop sounded, and bullets poured upon 
them from every side. The Virginians, finding themselves 
in an ambuscade, sprang into the forest and fought the sav- 
ages in their own style. ^ But Braddock obstinately kept 
his men in their ranks, though their fire was useless and 
they were rapidly falling. He even struck some of the pro- 
vincials with his sword because they would not stand to 
be shot at. In the end he was mortally wounded, and his 
men fled in dismay. Washington covered the retreat with 
the remnant of the colonial troops and saved the flying 
regulars from destruction.^ 

The English Plan of Campaign. — The capture of Fort 
Duquesne was only one of the purposes which the Eng- 
lish had in view. It was evident that a much wider conflict 
lay before them. If the Mississippi Valley was to be saved 
it could most effectually be done by driving the French from 
America, and it was this grand achievement which the au- 
thorities abroad proposed to undertake. 



^ The colonists, French and English alike, had learned the art of 
forest warfare. They loaded their guns while lying on the ground, and 
fired from behind trees and stumps, retreating to load and running for- 
ward to fire. They were sure marksmen, and those at whom they fired 
commonly fell. The regulars, on the contrary, were taught to fire in 
platoons at the enemy's line, without taking aim. In fighting with In- 
dians, their bullets were mostly wasted. The regulars were unfit by 
habit, discipline, and clothing for fighting in the woods. The Ameri- 
cans, on whom discipline was wasted, were born woodland fighters. 

^ Washington alone won credit in this disastrous affair. His activity 
was remarkable. Danger did not affect his cool judgment. Two horses 
were shot under him and four balls pierced his clothes. An old Indian 
chief afterward stated that he had fired fifteen times at him without 
hitting him, until he concluded that the white brave bore a charmed 
life. Washington never received a wound in battle, though he never 
hesitated to risk his life. 



160 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

But the French were not to be reached without difficulty. 
They were protected by nature. Between Canada and the 
English colonies lay a broad belt of forest and mountain, 
almost impassable to an army. The natural lines of attack, 
in addition to that against Fort Duquesne, lay along Lakes 
George and Champlain, and up the St. Lawrence by the 
ocean route. The Niagara River offered another line of 
approach. 

The French Defences. — These channels of communi- 
cation were all strongly guarded by the French. Fort 
Duquesne was the key to the Ohio Valley. A fort at Crown 
Point defended the Lake Champlain route. Fort Niagara, on 
the Niagara River, controlled the route to the upper lakes. 
Louisburg threatened New England and the fisheries, serv- 
ing as a place of refuge for French privateers. Back of all 
these lay the strongly fortified post of Quebec, controlling 
the St. Lawrence, and serving as the basic point of the 
French power in America. 

Expulsion of the Acadians. — A portion of the original 
French territory, that now known as Nova Scotia, had been 
in English possession since Queen Anne's War. A success- 
ful expedition against the remainder of Acadia, principally 
what is now New Brunswick, was undertaken in 1755. It 
was attended by a cruel act, which has long been reprobated. 
The Acadians were ignorant peasants, simple in habits, 
strongly French in sympathy, and not content in their posi- 
tion as British subjects. Many of them gave aid and infor- 
mation to the French, a course which so greatly exasper- 
ated the English that a resolution to expel them from their 
country was taken. 

They were granted permission to remain if they would 
take an oath of allegiance to the English king, but this most 
of them refused, and more than six thousand were forced 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 



161 



on shipboard and distributed among the Enghsh colonies. 
The work was done cruelly. Families were separated, their 
homes were burned to keep them from coming back, and 
their fertile farms laid waste. Many of the exiles found new 
homes in the French settlements of Louisiana. But their 




JiXPITLSION OF THE ACADIANR 



love for their old fields was never lost, and in the end many 
returned and took the oath of allegiance. Their love for 
Acadia proved stronger than their fidelity to France. This 
act of expulsion has been defended as a military necessity, 
but it is not easy to believe that so cruel a deed could not 
have been avoided. 

The Battle of Lake George, — In the same year with 
the Duquesne and Acadian expeditions (1755) another was 
undertaken against Crown Point, a strong work which the 



162 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

French had built on the west side of Lake Champlain. It 
was led by Sir William Johnson, a New York landholder 
who had great influence with the Iroquois Indians, many 
of whom followed him to the field. 

The French advanced to meet their foes, and the two 
armies met on the southern shore of Lake George. A severe 
battle followed, in which the French were at first successful, 
but afterward met with a severe defeat from the provincial 
troops under General Lyman. ^ Johnson, though victorious, 
did not proceed against Crown Point, so that the purpose 
of the expedition failed. He contented himself with build- 
ing Fort William Henry, at the head of the lake. The 
French built the afterward famous Fort Ticonderoga, near 
the opposite extremity of Lake George. 

War Declared. — It was not until 1756 that war was 
formally declared, though it had existed in America for two 
years. It now spread to the European continent and to the 
colonies of France and England in India. America had thus 
lighted a brand of war whose destructive effects spread 
round the world. 

Montcalm's Victories. — In 1756 the Marquis de Mont- 
calm, an able French officer, was made commander-in-chief 
in America, and signalized his ability by the capture of the 
English post at Oswego, which gave him fourteen hundred 
prisoners, a large amount of stores, and full command of 
Lake Ontario. It was a serious loss to the English cause. 
In the following year he descended Lakes Champlain and 

' Baron Dieskau, the commander of the French army, was found by 
the pursuers, wounded and alone, supported against a tree. As a pro- 
vincial soldier approached, the wounded general Mt for his watch, 
hoping to gain safety by the present. But the soldier thought that he 
was feeling for his pistol, and shot him. The wound was incurable, 
though he suffered from its effects ten years before dying. 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 



163 



George with a strong force, attacked Fort William Henry, 
and forced its surrender.. 

The Fort "William Henry Massacre. — A terrible affair 
followed. The English garrison marched out of the fort 




The Seat of War in New York. 



without their arms, having been 
promised a safe escort to Fort 
Edward, on the Hudson River. 
But the escort did not appear 
in time, and Montcalm's Indian 
allies fell on the defenceless 

English and massacred great numbers of them, despite all 
the French officers could do to restrain their fury. Many 
others were carried off by the Indians as prisoners. Mont- 
calm has been severely blamed for inertness in this scene 
of savage butchery, though perhaps without just cause. 

The Attack on Ticonderoga. — During the next summer 
(1758) a vigorous effort was made to take Fort Ticonderoga, 
General Abercrombie marching against it at the head of 
fifteen thousand troops. Montcalm held the fort with less 



164 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

than one-third this force. Yet despite the strength of the 
British army it was driven back in complete defeat and with 
heavy loss. 

The Results of Four Years. — Up to this time success 
had remained with the French. They had been victori- 
ous at Fort Duquesne and Lake Champlain, and England, 
though it had made vigorous exertions and raised large 
bodies of troops, had only the pitiful success in Acadia of 
which to boast. 

The victories of France had been due to strenuous efforts 
of the home government. If the war had been left to the 
colonists there could have been but one result. The French 
area in America, though vast, was but a shell, its population 
being not more than one hundred and twenty-five thousand. 
The English colonies, on the contrary, were compactly set- 
tled, their population being one million two hundred and 
fifty thousand. This great discrepancy in numbers might 
not have made itself manifest in the first years of the war, 
with so difficult a country intervening, yet in the end it 
could not have failed to give success to the English colonists. 

William Pitt's Method. — As it was, the reinforcements 
sent from abroad aided to equalize the strength of the com- 
batants, and served to protract the struggle. But the suc- 
cess of the French ceased. William Pitt, the new minister 
of England, took steps for a vigorous prosecution of the 
war, and managed to keep the armies of France occupied 
in Europe, while English fleets and armies strenuously 
attacked her colonies abroad. The outcome of this policy 
in America remains to be told. 

The Work of 1758.— The defeat at Ticonderoga was the 
only failure in the new poUcy. A strong expedition was 
sent during the same year against Louisburg, and that 
stronghold was a second time captured. Another army 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 



165 



was sent against Fort Duquesnc. This fort had, since 
Braddock's defeat, been the centre of destructive Indian 
raids on the frontier, in deahng with which Washington had 
been kept busy. As the army slowly made its way toward 
the fort, General Forbes, its commander, diligently making 
a road as he advanced, winter came on, the troops com- 
plained, and it was decided to abandon the enterprise. But 
learning that the garrison was weak, Washington asked the 
privilege to advance with his Virginians. Permission was 
given, and he moved rapidly forward. On his approach 
the garrison set fire to the fort and fled. The flames were 
extinguished and the name of the fortress was changed to 
Fort Pitt, in honor of the great statesman. 

The Siege of Quebec— In July, 1759, Forts Niagara and 
Ticonderoga were taken by the English, and an expedition 
sailed against Quebec, led 
by General Wolfe, an offi- 
cer who had distinguished 
himself in the taking of 
Louisburg. The struggle 
had narrowed itself to a 
single point, the forces 
were nearly equal, and 
the commanders both of 
high military renown. 
Montcalm had, by active 
efforts, collected an army 
of seven thousand men 
for the defence of Quebec. Wolfe had a large fleet and 
eight thousand soldiers for the siege. 

Fruitless Assault. — For months Wolfe continued the 
assault, cannonading the city and seeking some promising 
point of attack. He was almost in despair as autumn came 




The Siege of Quebec. 



166 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

and the period of the closing of the stream by ice was at 
hand. Montcalm at length beheld with joy the English 
troops taken on board the ships, which moved during the 
day up-stream as if with the intention of abandoning the 
contest. 

The Path up the Cliff.— He was deceived. Wolfe had 
quite another purpose in view. He had carefully investi- 
gated on the land side the lofty cliff on which the city 
stood, and perceived there a narrow, craggy path winding 
up the rocks to the top. It seemed impossible for an army 
to ascend, yet he was determined to attempt it as a last 
resort. 

When night fell the boats, filled with soldiers, silently 
floated down the river with the ebb tide.^ When the point 
now known as Wolfe's Cove was reached, the men landed, 
and clambered in a narrow line up the steep pathway. 
Those who first reached the summit surprised and dis- 
persed the small guard they found there. The others 
rapidly followed in a continuous line, and when the morn- 
ing of September 13, 1759, broke, the French beheld with 
astonishment an English army, five thousand strong, con- 



^ For two hours the boats floated noiselessly down the stream under 
a moonless but starlit sky. French sentinels lined the shore, but 
only one of them took the alarm. " Qui viver' came a sharp chal- 
lenge through the gloom. " France f" answered a Highland officer 
who spoke French. "A quel regiment ?" " Z>e la Reine,'" was the 
reply. The sentinel was satisfied and did not ask for the password. 
The moment of peril was passed. Wolfe was feeble in health, and had 
risen from a sick-bed to conduct this expedition. As they floated 
onward he recited in a low voice to the officers around him Gray's 
" Elegy in a Country Church-Yard," one line being " The paths of glory 
lead but to the grave." The truth of this he was soon to illustrate in 
his own fate. "Gentlemen," he said, "I would rather have written 
those lines than take Quebec." 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 167 

fronting them on the Plains of Abraham, the level plateau 
which extends west of the city. 

The Decisive Battle. — Montcalm, staggered at the unex- 
pected sight, lost no time in seeking to dislodge the foe, 
before more could ascend or more cannon be drawn up. 
An impetuous attack was made, which the British veterans 
bore unmoved. The fighting grew sharp and fierce, the 
French, most of whom were provincial militia, falHng 
rapidly before the quick and steady volleys of the British. 
At length they began to break. Wolfe ordered a bayonet 
charge, which he himself led. He was twice wounded, and 
at length fell with a third and mortal wound. 

A few minutes afterward he heard the 
exultant cry, " They run ! they run !" 

"Who run?" he demanded. 

" The French ! they give way every- 
where." 

" Go to Colonel Burton," he cried ; 
'' tell him to march Webb's regiment 
down to Charles River to cut off their 

retreat from the bridge." From chateau de Ramezay. 

Then he murmured, "Now God be ^^^^^^^ wolfe. 
praised, I will die in peace," and in a few minutes the life 
of the victor passed away. 

Fate of Montcalm. — Montcalm had' a similar fate. Borne 
on the tide of retreat toward the city, he was shot through 
the body before the gate was reached. The surgeon told 
him that the wound was mortal. " So much the better," 
he replied ; " for then I shall not live to see the surrender 
of Quebec." 

Five days afterward the city surrendered, and the colo- 
nial domain of New France was at an end. 

End of the War. — An attempt was made in the next year 




168 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 



to reconquer Quebec, and a severe battle was fought, but 
the siege was raised on the approach of a powerful English 
fleet. Then a strong army marched on Montreal, the last 
French stronghold, which quickly surrendered. This ended 
the conflict. All Canada submitted. England was master 
of the continent, with the exception of the French posts on 
the Mississippi and the Gulf, from Florida to the Arctic 
seas. 

Peace and its Provisions. — There was no more fighting 
in America, though the war continued abroad. Peace was 




English Territory after the French and Indian War. 



made at Paris in 1763. France had been defeated, and 
gave up her whole Canadian province to England, retaining 
only two small islands near Newfoundland, which she held 
for fishing purposes. But the treaty of peace contained 
other important clauses. Spain had aided France in the 
last years of the war. In consequence, in 1762, England 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 169 

conquered Cuba and the Philippine Islands. These islands 
were now given back to Spain in exchange for Florida, 
which became J]nglish territory. 

France Yields her Western Claims. — France had sur- 
rendered to England all her claim to territory in the Ohio 
Valley. She still claimed the territory west of the Missis- 
sippi River to the Rocky Mountains, and held New Orleans. 
These were ceded to her ally, Spain, to repay that country 
for the loss of Florida. In consequence France did not 
retain a foot of land on the continent of North America. 
All this continent east of the Mississippi, except New Or- 
leans and the island on which it lay, belonged to England. 
All west of that river belonged to Spain. To the great un- 
known Northwest neither country troubled itself to lay 
claim. Thus the year 1763 wrought a mighty change in 
the destinies of America. 

The Indian Rights Ignored. — In this great deal the 
rights of one party to the conquest were quite overlooked. 
The Indians, who had so greatly aided France, were quietly 
handed over to the dominion of England, without their 
consent being asked or thought of. To this they seriously 
objected. They were friendly to the French, who treated 
them well and conformed to their habits and prejudices. 
They distrusted and hated the English, whose only alHes 
were the Iroquois. The defeat of the French left them 
exposed to the encroachments of English settlers, and they 
clearly saw that, unless they could drive back these in- 
vaders, they would be overwhelmed. 

Pontiac's Conspiracy. — Pontiac, a leading Ottawa chief, 
and a man of great influence with the tribes, perceived this 
danger and sought to counteract it. He organized a con- 
federation of the tribes west of the mountains, with the 
purpose of seeking to expel the English. Even the Sene- 



170 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 

cas, one of the Iroquois tribes, was induced to join it. His 
purpose was to fall on all the English forts at once and 
take them by surprise. The effort was largely successful. 
In May and June, 1763, eight forts were surprised, and 
their garrisons captured or destroyed. Hundreds of settlers 
were murdered, thousands fled to escape the scalping- 
knife. Only Detroit and Fort Pitt successfully resisted the 
savage assault.^ For two years the war continued, though 
in 1764 the savages were severely defeated at Bushy Run, 
in Pennsylvania, by Colonel Henry Bouquet. Sir William 
Johnson induced the Senecas to withdraw from the con- 
spiracy. Other vigorous steps were taken, and peace was 
finally made in 1766. Pontiac was assassinated by another 
Indian in 1769. 

Results of the "War. — I'lio French and Indian War told 
heavily on the colonies. It cost them in money sixteen mil- 
lion dollars, of which England repaid only five million dol- 
lars. They lost sixty thousand men, and suffered severely 
from Indian raids. The taxes were very heavy," but were 
levied by their own representatives and paid without pro- 
test. The provincial soldiers were treated with disdain by 

^ The Indians indulged in various cunning tricks to deceive the 
unsuspecting garrisons. At Mackinaw a game of ball was played 
before the fort. The ball was driven, as if by accident, toward the 
open gate, where the officers stood watching. The Indians followed, 
and in an instant had seized the officers and poured into the fort. 
The work of slaughter at once began. At another fort the commander 
was lured out to visit a sick squaw. Detroit was saved by a squaw, 
who revealed the plot. In the siege of this place Pontiac showed 
much ability. Several times he sent fire-rafts against the armed 
vessels which the English had in the river. He obtained provisions 
from the French farmers by requisition, and paid them with birch- 
bark notes signed with the figure of an otter. These notes were alJ 
redeemed. 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 171 

the regulars, and American officers of proved valor were 
often thrust aside in favor of young British subalterns. 

But the colonists had gained more than they had lost. 
Many officers who were to win fame in the Revolution re- 
ceived their military training in this war. Among these 
were Washington, Putnam, Gates, Montgomery, Stark, 
Arnold, and others. The colonies had fought together, and 
had become more united in spirit while gaining a fuller 
appreciation of their own strength. They had learned to 
act independently of England, having voted money, raised 
troops, and fought battles for themselves. The war was 
their own, and they had conquered. Furthermore, they 
were now owners of the great West, The vast region be- 
yond the Alleghanies lay before them, to settle as they 
would. No enemy was there but the Indian, and he was 
powerless to stay the westward march. 



PART V. 
FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



I. A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 

George III. and his Advisers. — In 1760, George II., in 
whose reign had been fought the French and Indian War, 
died, and a new king, George III., came to the English 
throne. He was a man not well fitted to deal with a 
people as sensitive on the subject of political liberty as the 
Americans. Obstinate in disposition and dull in mind, with 
an exaggerated view of the royal prerogative, he was sec- 
onded by ministers and a Parliament who could not be 
made to understand the feeling of the colonists, and who 
persisted in a policy that in a few years drove them into 
rebellion. The gradual steps by which this was accom- 
plished it is our purpose next to describe. 

Views Concerning Trade. — At that time the most en- 
liglitened people had views concerning commerce different 
from those held to-day. No one seemed to understand that 
trade would be most prosperous if free from restrictions. 
And it was held that colonies existed for the good of the 
mother-country and had no independent rights of their 
own. 

The Navigation Acts. — Laws were therefore passed 

which declared that the American colonies should trade 

only with Great Britain. Their rice, their tobacco, their 

ore, and their lumber must be shipped only to British 

172 



A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 173 

ports ; and if they wanted tea or silk they must buy it 
from British merchants. 

The first of these Navigation Acts, as they were called, 
was passed in 1651, in Cromwell's time. Others were 
passed in fater years. At first the colonists were permitted 
to use their own ships. But the ship-builders of New 
England grew so active that the British law-makers de- 
cided to protect their ship-yards as well as their merchants. 
For this purpose a law was passed in 1663 which declared 
that no goods should be imported in American ships un- 
less these had been built before October, 1662. This was 
intended to restrict trade in time to ships built in British 
yards. The colonies were not even permitted to use their 
own ships to trade with one another. 

Restrictions on Manufactures. — Great Britain had not 
only the good of her merchants in view. Her manufac- 
turers must also be protected from those busy colonists. 
It would not do to let them make goods for themselves, 
since this might injure British workshops. They might 
grow wool, but they had no right to weave it into cloth. 
Iron might be smelted from their ores, but only English 
smiths had the right to work it into nails and ploughshares. 
Raw materials of this kind must be shipped to England, 
there to be wrought into goods. On the other hand, grain 
and other farm produce must not be shipped. Such pro- 
duce was raised on English farms, and English farmers in 
their turn demanded protection. Therefore a tariff was 
placed on the products of the fields, so high that the 
American farmers could not afford to export them. Thus 
in every way possible Great Britain sought to tie the hands 
of American labor. 

Commerce and Industry Forbidden. — The people of 
America strongly desired to make their own goods, and 



174 FROM COLONIES TO UxNITED STATES. 

naturally sought to find customers for them. This Eng- 
land sternly forbade. In the reign of William and Mary 
laws were passed wliich said that no paper, hats, iron, 
leather, or other articles should be exported, even from 
one colony to another. In some cases their rlianufacture 
also was forbidden. No hatter was permitted to have more 
than two apprentices at a time, or to send a hat out of his 
own town or district. It was declared by William Pitt, a 
friend of the Americans, that not even a horseshoe nail 
could be legally made without permission from Parliament.^ 
The Smugglers. — It proved easier to make such laws 
than to enforce them. In spite of the edicts against man- 
ufacture, many things w-ere made in America. In spite of 
the Navigation Acts, ships were built in American yards and 
goods sent to and brought from other than English ports.- 
Smuggling, it was called, but no one paid heed to that. 
The trade between the colonies was princii)ally done in 
vessels built and owned in New England. Lumber, fish, 
and grain were sent to the West Indies and molasses and 

^ Iron-works were declared to be "common nuisances.' ' A prominent 
Englishman said that the making of even a hobnail in America would 
be fatal. To print an English Bible in the colonies would have been 
considered ' ' an act of piracy. ' ' Turpentine and tar were forbidden to 
be made in the Carolina pine-forests. Trees in the Maine woods suit- 
able for masts belonged to the royal navy, and colonists were forbidden 
to fell them. 

*The Boston ship-yards were kept busy, and sold every year more 
than a hundred vessels in England or the West In^dies. Before 
the outbreak of the French and Indian War New England and New 
York owned fully a thousand sliips, besides their fishing fleet. A hun- 
dred and fifty were used in the whale fishery. These sent colonial 
products to the West Indies, France, Spain, and other countries, and 
brought back rich cargoes. The most of this trade was done' in defiance 
of the Navigation Laws. 



A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 175 

sugar brought back. Much of this molasses was converted 
into New England rum. The ports of Holland, France, and 
other countries were visited by American ships, loaded with 
salt-fish and other goods. There were custom-house offi- 
cials in the seaport towns, but their office was largely a 
sinecure. Smuggling went on openly before their eyes, and 
no earnest effort was made to stop it. 

Policy of George III. — With the accession of George III. 
a new policy came into effect. It was determined that the 
revenue laws should be enforced. The recent war with 
France had cost Great Britain heavily. The colonies had 
contributed large sums toward its expenses, but still the 
debt was great. The colonies were growing yearly richer 
and more populous, and were quite capable of paying their 
share into the treasury of the mother-country. Therefore, 
in 1761, it was decided that smuggling must be stopped and 
imj)ort duties collected.^ 

"Writs of Assistance. — This was easier to decide than to 
enforce. Boston was full of smuggled goods. The officer 
of customs at that port applied for " Writs of Assistance" to 
enable him to search for such goods. A Writ of Assistance 
was a general search-warrant, which gave the officer the 
right to break into any warehouse or dwelling he chose and 
search it from garret to cellar for smuggled goods. 

The writs were granted and the work began. Ware- 
houses were entered and goods claimed to be smuggled 
were seized. But opposition soon appeared. Owners here 
and there barricaded their doors and defied the officers with 
loaded guns. The axiom that " every man's house is his 



^ The population in 1763 was probably little short of two millions. 
The annual exports were valued at over five million dollars, the imports 
at eight million dollars, and they were rapidly increasing. 



176 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

castle" was being violated, and a bitter feeling was aroused 
even in those who had no goods to be seized. The writs 
failed in their purpose and smuggling went on. 

Lack of Colonial Cohesion. — In 1754, during a conven- 
tion held at Albany, Benjamin Franklin ' had brought for- 
ward a plan of union for the colonies, which he considered 
would enable them to work together in an emergency. It 
was rejected by Great Britain on the plea that it gave the 
colonies too much power, and by the colonies on the plea 
that it left them too little power. * As a result, they remained 
disunited during the French and Indian War. Each raised 
men and money separately. Those not in danger were 
slow to act. It was evident that some power ought to exist 
that could enlist soldiers and obtain money without the 
delays and danger of this slow process. 

Not Ready for Union. — Could a federal union have been 
formed this difficulty might have been overcome. But it 
was too soon for such a union. The colonies were not pre- 
pared for it ; they had been too long used to their separate 
governments to be willing to give them up. Great Britain 

' Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston in 1706. He learned the 
trade of printing, and at the age of seventeen went to Philadelphia, 
which city afterward remained his home. He was long in business as 
printer and publisher, editing the Pennsylvania Gazette and publishing 
" Poor Richard's Almanac," a highly popular compendium of common- 
sense sayings. He was very active as a citizen, founded the Philadel- 
phia Library and the University of Pennsylvania, and originated other 
Philadelphia institutions. He became famous for a great scientific 
discovery, in which he drew electricity from the clouds and proved the 
cause of lightning to be electrical. He was one of the best American 
prose writers of the century. In 1753 he was appointed postmaster- 
general for America. During the rest of his life he was deeply engaged 
in public business, and did much to advance the cause of American 
liberty abroad and at home. ^ See page 476. 



A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 177 

did not want it ; it was easier to deal with thirteen dis- 
united colonies than with a single united one. Yet some 
central authority seemed needed, and the British ministry 
devised a plan for one which they thought would work. 

The British Proposition. — What they proposed to do 
was as follows : 

1. A small army seemed to them necessary for the de- 
fence of the colonies. This could be sent from England 
and its expenses paid by America. 

2. The governors, judges, and crown attorneys were to 
be paid with American money, but this money was to be 
raised by taxes over which the colonial assemblies had no 
control, and to be disbursed by the crown. 

3. If any money remained, it was to be used in giving 
pensions to deserving Americans. 

In short, America was asked to give up functions which 
it had always exercised at home and to supply money which 
would make its officials independent of control except by 
the British king, and whose surplus could be used for pur- 
poses of bribery or corruption. They were, in fact, asked 
to deliver themselves over, bound hand and foot, into the 
power of the crown. 

The Colonists Object. — Such a demand might have suc- 
ceeded with French and Spanish colonists. It could hardly 
succeed with English. For a century and more the colo- 
nists had voted their own taxes, paid their own officials, 
and made their own laws. They were not likely to give 
up this privilege without a long and bitter struggle. 

Hitherto they had known only the king in their dealings, 
and performed their own legislative work. Now they were 
asked to yield themselves to the control of Parliament. It 
was a new demand, and one to which English colonists 
were very unlikely to submit. 




178 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

Taxation ; Stamp Act. — How best to carry out these 
measures puzzled the British authorities. At length a plan 
was devised to which it was thought 
the Americans would not object. 
An act was passed by Parliament in 
1764 laying increased duties on com- 
merce and placing new restrictions 
on trade. This caused much irrita- 
tion in Massachusetts, the centre of 
American commerce. 

In 1765 an act was passed which 
affected all the colonies. It was what 

A Stamp-Act Stamp. a t a ii u 

IS known as a Stamp Act. All pub- 
lic documents, legal papers, newspapers, and almanacs 
were to have stamps fixed to them, as stamps are now at- 
tached to letters. These stamps were to be sold. Their 
price varied from a half-penny to twelve pounds Legal 
papers not stamped were to be of no value in law. 

How the Stamp Act was Received. — The Stamp Act 
met with little opposition in Parliament.^ When news of its 
passage reached America there was an outbreak of indigna- 
tion. The people rose in fury, mobbed the houses of British 
officials, and hung in effigy certain unpopular dignitaries. 

The leading orators denounced the act as tyranny. Sam- 
uel Adams and James Otis in Boston, and Patrick ITonry in 
Virginia, vigorously opposed it. Otis had declared, at the 
time of the Writs of Assistance trials, that "Taxation with- 
out representation is tyranny." ^ This remark had become 

* Benjamin Franklin, who was in London at the time, fought hard 
against the law, but said he might as well have tried to stop the sun 
from setting as to stop Parliament. 

"^ In England it had for centuries been a fixed political axiom that 
only the people, through their representatives, could vote taxes. The 




A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. I79 

the watchword of the people, and was now the text of the 
orators. They did not hesitate to speak in the plainest lan- 
guage, and their ringing words roused ---sr«p^ 
the country from end to end.^ 

Sons of Liberty. — The people fully 
seconded their orators. Associations 
called " Sons of Liberty" Avere formed 
to resist the act. A congress was held ^^^N^^^I^By 
at New York to which nine of the 
colonies sent delegates. It issued a 
Declaration of Rights and framed a 
petition to Parliament and the king. Patrick henry. 

How the Stamps were Received. — The act was to go 
into effect on the 1st of November, 1765. When that day 

House of Commons was the only body that could pass revenue bills. 
Charles I. tried to set this aside and tax the people himself. In con- 
sequence he stirred up a rebellion that cost him his crown and his 
head. The colonists claimed the same right. They had no represent- 
atives in Parliament, and therefore denied that Parliament could tax 
them. They were willing to be taxed by their own assemblies, but by 
kIo other power on earth. 

^ Patrick Henry was a young lawyer of Virginia who had acquired 
a great reputation for eloquence. He was at this time a member of the 
House of Burgesses, in which he offtn-ed resolutions boldly declaring 
that the assembly of Virginia had the sole right to tax the people of 
that province, and that they were not bound to obey any law not made 
i)y their own representatives. His speech in support of these resolu- 
tions was one of wonderful eloquence. During its delivery, alluding 
to tyrants, he exclaimed, — 

" Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George 
the Third " 

He was interrupted by cries of "Treason! treason!" The orator 
paused a moment, then added, impressively, " may profit by their exam- 
ple. If that be treason, make the most of it." 

This speech made Patrick Henry famous. He was the first Speaker 
in the Continental Congress of 1774. He was governor of Virginia 



180 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

came bells were tolled, flags were raised at half-mast, 
and business was generally suspended. \Vhen the stamps 
arrived on shipboard they were seized and burned. The 
stamp agents were forced to resign. Editors published 
their papers with a skull and cross-bones instead of the 
stamp. Lawyers agreed to consider documents without 
stamps as good in law. People determined to use no ar- 
ticle of British manufacture. They proposed even to stop 
eating mutton, that there might be more wool for weav 
ing. In households throughout the land the spinning- 
wheel and loom hummed loudly as patriotic women wove 
homespun cloth. The whole country had risen against 
the law. 

The End of the Stamp Act.— The time for the Act to go 
into effect came, but there were neither stamps to use nor 
officers to sell tliem. Parliament was astounded. Even 
many Americans were surprised. No such general and 
bitter resistance had been looked for. The British gov- 
ernment was in a quandary. English merchants sent in 
petitions for a repeal of the law. Their business was suf- 
fering from the determination in America to use no English 
goods. Franklin was examined before the House of Com- 
mons, and told that body some wholesome truths. He 
gave the members plainly to understand that America 
would never submit. The great orators, William Pitt and 
Edmund Burke, opposed the law in Parliament.^ It was 

from 1776 to 1779. In 1788 he strongly opposed the ratification by 
Virginia of the National Constitution. He declined high government 
positions offered him by Presidents Washington and Adams. He died 
in 1799. 

^ Pitt declared that Parliament had no right to tax the Americans, 
and said, " I rejoice that America has resisted." Burke said that if the 
king tried to tax the Americans against their will, he would find it as 



A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 181 

repealed in 1766, after a long and hot debate. America 
had won. 

The Right of Taxation. — Although the obnoxious law 
was repealed, the king and his advisers had no thought of 
giving up the fight. Parliament declared that it had the full 
right to make laws binding the American people. England 
was in debt, and the government was determined that 
America should help it, and do so in the king's way. George 
III. felt that he had the right to tax America. His Parlia- 
ment agreed with him. It was not long, therefore, before 
new steps were taken, new wedges, we may call them, 
driven in to separate Great Britain and her colonies. 

New Acts of Oppression. — An act was passed forbid- 
ding all trade between the colonies and certain West India 
islands. This was bitterly resented in New England, for it 
cut off a very profitable trade. In 1767 what were called 
the Townshend Acts were passed. These laid duties on 
glass, paper, lead, paints, and teas. The colonists had paid 
port duties before, said Townshend ; let them do so again. 
But there was a decided difference. The money to be 
raised by those duties was to be used to destroy the inde- 
pendence of colonial government, and put the colonists in 
the position of paying for their own enslavement. 

The Quartering Act. — The colonists had reasons for 
this opinion. An act known as the Quartering Act had been 
passed in 1765, which required the colonies to support 
troops which might be quartered among them. Under this 
law troops were sent to enforce the Townshend Acts. Their 
coming excited the highest indignation. The people were 
asked to shelter and feed their oppressors. This the New 

hard a job as the farmer did who tried to shear a wolf instead of a 
sheep. 



182 



FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



York assembly refused to do, and as a ininishinont it was 
forbidden to pass any laws. The Massachusetts assembly 
also resisted, and asked the colonies to unite for defence. 
Nearly all the other assemblies had already declared that 
Parliament had no right to tax them without their consent. 




Fanei'il Hall. 

Assemblies Dismissed. — As a result of tliis decided ac- 
tion the Massachusetts assembly was dismissed by order 
of the king, and during several years the other assemblies 
were dissolved by the royal governors so often that little 
business could be transacted.* The people did nothing, ex- 

' The Virginia assembly, when dismissed, used to meet in conven- 
tion in the large ball-room of the Raleigh Tavern at Williamsburg, and 
there discuss public matters. In Massachusetts legislation was carried 
OP to some extent by the Boston town-meeting held in Faneuil Hall, 
the " Cradle of Liberty," as it came to be called. 



A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 183 

cept to desist from using English goods ; but this was 
enough to make serious trouble in England. Between 1767 
and 1769 the exports to New England fell off one-half; those 
to New York fell off five-sixths. 

Lord North Minister. — In 1768, Lord North became 
prime minister of England. He retained this position till 
the end of the Revolution. He was a weak man, who let 
the king have his own way. Thus George III. was the 
ruling power from 1768 to 1782, and it was largely through 
his obstinate determination to force the colonists to submit 
to his will that the Americans were driven to rebelhon and 
gained their independence. 

Troops in Boston. — In seven years of his reign George 
III. and his Parliament had managed to convert loyal into 
disloyal subjects. In seven years more the king and his 
troops were to convert irritation into rebellion. Two regi- 
ments were sent to Boston in 1768, under General Gage 
(an officer who had taken part in the Braddock expedition). 
They were intended to sustain the Townshend Acts, the en- 
forcement of which had been resisted in Boston harbor. 

How Boston Received the Troops. — The measure was 
a dangerous one, as was soon to be proved. The Bosto- 
nians looked upon the soldiers as enemies, and their faces 
were grim with suppressed anger as the troops marched 
with beating drums and flying flags through Boston streets. 
They were refused quarters, though some of them were 
allowed to sleep in Faneuil {fdn'H) Hall. The others en- 
camped on the Common, where they planted cannon and 
posted sentries as though they were in a conquered city. 

The Boston Massacre. — The feeling of irritation grew 
daily. No citizen could pass the sentries without being 
challenged. Quarrels between the people and the soldiers 
were frequent. At length, on March 6, 1770, an outbreak 



184 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

came. A crowd of men and boys threatened a sentry, and 
when soldiers came to his aid abused them and dared 
them to fire. The soldiers at length fired, killing four 
persons and wounding several others. 

The town was at once in an uproar. The bells were 
rung, and citizens flocked to the scene. As news of the 
" Boston Massacre," as it was called, spread, country people 
hurried to the aid of the citizens. Order was restored with 
difficulty. The next day an immense meeting was held at 
the old South Meeting-House. It was decided that the 
troops must leave the town, and Samuel Adams called on 
the governor with this peremptory mandate of the people. 
The order was obeyed. Before night the soldiers were 
removed to one of the islands in the harbor. 

The Soldiers Tried. — The soldiers concerned in the affray 
were tried for murder. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, 
earnest patriots, yet who felt that the accused had acted in 
self-defence, defended them in the court. All were acquit- 
ted but two, who were found guilty of manslaughter. They 
were branded in the hand. 

The Gaspee Burned. — In 1772 another act of violence 
took place, clearly showing the rebellious spirit of the 
people. The Gaspee, a revenue vessel, which had been 
offensively active, ran aground on a point in Narragansett 
Bay and was seized and burned. An order was received 
from the ministry to send the offenders to England for 
trial. This the chief justice of Rhode Island, Stephen 
Hopkins, refused to obey. 

A New Scheme of Taxation. — Meanwhile, the Town- 
shend Acts were yielding no revenue, and British trade was 
seriously suffering. There was nothing for it but to repeal 
the obnoxious laws. Yet George III. was bent on estab- 
lishing his right to tax the colonies, and insisted that the 



A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 185 

duty should be retained on tea. It had ceased to be a 
question of revenue and become one of principle in his 
mind. The colonists should pay taxes at his dictation ; on 
that he was determined. 

English Tea Refused. — The colonists were equally deter- 
mined. Tea was smuggled in from Holland in large quan- 
tities. Some of the people drank a decoction of raspberry 
leaves as a substitute for tea. English tea they did not and 
would not use, and the East India Company, which had a 
monopoly of that article, found its warehouses overstocked 
and its finances in confusion, largely because the Americans 
had ceased to use its tea. 

The King's Plan. — What was to be done? King and 
conipany alike were in a quandary. At length a cunning 
plan was devised. " There must be one tax to keep up the 
right," said the king. Tea paid a duty of five pence a 
pound in England. It was agreed to take off this duty, and 
charge the Americans only the three pence tax per pound. 
At that rate America would get her tea at a lower price 
than England, and obtain cheaper tea than that smuggled 
from Holland. 

This was thought a very neat device. Orders for tea 
would surely come now. But they did not. It was princi- 
ple, not price, which the Americans sought to establish, 
and they were not to be driven or coaxed into paying taxes 
of English origin, even to save two pence a pound on their 
tea. 

Tea Sent Over. — No orders coming, the company re- 
solved to send out cargoes, hoping they would find a market. 
Ship-loads were sent in 1773 to various ports, but they were 
everywhere refused. At Philadelphia and New York the 
ships were ordered from port with their tea. At Charleston 
the tea was landed and stored in damp cellars, where it 



186 



FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



rolled while awaiting buyers. A privale coiisignincnl sent 
to Annapolis was burned in the harbor. 

The Tea Ships at Boston. — In Boston tlie British officials 
refused to let the ships return. The citizens determined 
that the tea should not be landed. A guard watched the 
ships day and night, Samuel Adams was the leading spirit 
on this occasion. Town-meetings were 
held, and the owner of the ships was or- 
dered to take them away. But the col- 
lector refused a clearance to the ships 
and the governor a pass to the captain. 
Nineteen days passed. On the twen- 
tieth the law permitted the custom-house 
officers to seize the vessels and unload 
them by force. 

The Boston Tea-Party . — On that day, 
December 16, 1773, a great town-meet- 
ing was held. It was decided that the 
tea should not be landed. Evening had 
fallen when Samuel Adams rose and 
said, " This meeting can do nothing more 
to save the country." ^ 

As though this Avere a signal, a party 

of citizens disguised as Indians gave a 

war-wlioop at the door and rushed down the street toward 

the wharf. Boarding the vessels, they hoisted up the tea- 




BosTON Tea-Party. 



' Samuel Adams, the leader of the Boston populace in the cause of 
liberty, was born in that city in 1722. He was devoted to liberty even 
as a student at Harvard College. He was always poor, but could not 
be bought. When General Gage offered pardon to the Americans, 
Samuel Adams and John Hancock were excepted. He proposed the 
Congress of 1774 and became one of its members. Independence 
throughout had in him a persistent advocate. He died in 1803. 



A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 187 

chests, three hundred and forty-two in all, broke thein open, 
and poured their contents into the harbor. In two hours' 
time the work was over and the Boston tea-party at an 
end. The tea which the colonists were to have been forced 
to drink had gone to feed the fishes. 

Acts in Retaliation. — When the news of this act of vio- 
lence came to England the king and his ministers were 
bitterly incensed. Instead of taking warning and drawing 
back before it was too late, they proceeded to new acts of 
oppression, driving the wedge of separation deeper and 
deeper. 

Five acts were passed in 1774, which became knoAvn as 
the " Intolerable Acts." 

1. The Boston Port Bill declared that no ships should be 
allowed to enter or leave the port until the lost tea had been 
paid for. 

2. The Transportation Bill allowed soldiers or officials 
who might commit murder in quelhng resistance to the law 
to be sent to England or Nova Scotia for trial. 

3. The Massachusetts Bill practically revoked the char- 
ter, putting all power into the governor's hands. 

4. Another bill legalized the quartering of troops on the 
colonists. 

5. The Quebec Act extended the government of Canada 
over the country west of the Alleghanies. 

All these acts were intended to bring the colonists more 
directly under control of the king. Their ultimate effect 
was to drive them into revolution. 

Effect of the Boston Port Bill.— The closing of the port 

of Boston caused much distress. Business was stopped, 

men were dismissed, food grew scarce. Aid and sympathy 

came from all quarters. Marblehead and Salem offered 

Boston the use of their wharves. Wheat, rice, and other 

19 



188 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

food were contributed freely. Money was donated. The 
whole country sympathized with Boston in her trouble and 
sustained her in her resistance.^ 

Committees of Correspondence, — In 1772 it had been 
ordered that the judges should thenceforth be paid by the 
crown. The judges were threatened by the colonists with 
impeachment if they dared accept a penny from tlie king. 
As the assembly had been dissolved, Samuel Adams devised 
a plan of government without legislation. Each town ap- 
pointed a committee to confer with committees from other 
towns. These were called " Committees of Correspond- 
ence." When they all met they would form a " Provincial 
Congress." In this way goverment went on. 

In the spring of 1773, Dabney Carr, of Virginia, proposed 
and arranged for Committees of Correspondence between 
the colonies. This was another step in advance. A single 
step further would yield a Continental Congress. That step 
was taken in the following year. 

2. THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 

Soldiers in Boston Again. — If the real purpose of George 
III. had been to drive the colonies to rebellion, he could not 
have taken surer methods or been more successful. By 
1774 he had gone too far to draw back. The colonists had 
become rebels at heart. Little was now needed to make 
them rebels in act. The next step was soon taken. Boston 
was once more filled with soldiers. General Gage had been 

^ South Carolina sent two hundred barrels of rice. North Carolina 
contributed nearly ten thousand dollars in money. A town in Massa- 
thusetts donated two hundred and lifty sheep. Grain, Hour, cattle, 
fish, and other supplies came from elsewhere. The- whole country 
looked upon Boston as a martyr to the cause of liberty. 



I 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 189 

sent back there with four regiments and batteries of artillery. 
He was to sustain the Boston Port Bill and keep the people 
in order. To increase his authority he was made governor 
of Massachusetts, though no patriotic citizen ever recognized 
him as such. 

The First Continental Congress. — America was in the 
mood to resist to the bitter end. Preparation for resistance 
took two forms, civil and military. The holding of a general 
congress was proposed in Virginia and approved in other 
colonies. On June 17, 1774, Samuel Adams rose in the 
General Court at Salem and proposed that a Continental 
Congress should be called, to meet in Philadelphia on Sep- 
tember 1. His motion was adopted and five delegates were 
chosen. Two days earlier, Rhode Island had taken similar 
action. 

The other colonies, except Georgia, chose delegates. The 
Georgia assembly was prevented from doing so by the gov- 
ernor. This Congress, composed of fifty-five delegates, met 
at Philadelphia on September 5, 1774, its sessions being 
held in Carpenters' Hall.^ Among the delegates were George 
Washington, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee, from 
Virginia ; Samuel Adams and John Adams, from Massa- 
chusetts ; John Jay, from New York ; and able men from the 
other colonies. Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was chosen 
president. 

Acts of the First Congress. — This body continued in 

^ Carpenters' Hall was built in 1770 by the Carpenters' Company, 
composed of architects and builders. After being used by the Conti- 
nental Congress it was employed for State purposes and as a hospital 
for sick soldiers. In later days it was used' at times by the Philadel- 
phia Library, the Bank of Pennsylvania, and the Land Office of the 
United States. It is still in excellent preservation, and is maintained 
for its historical interest. 



190 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

session until October 26, 1774. There was nothing revolu- 
tionary or disloyal in its actions. It professed loyalty to 
the king, but petitioned him to redress the wrongs of the 
colonies. Addresses were sent to the people of Great Brit- 
ain, Canada, and the colonies, and a declaration of rights was 
drawn up, with an agreement to stop all trade with Great 
Britain and to put an end to the slave-trade. Representa- 
tion in Pariiament was not asked for. It was not wanted. 
What the Congress demanded was the right to make all 
laws (except those relating to foreign commerce) and to levy 
all taxes in the colonial assemblies. This action taken, the 
Congress adjourned, having first provided for another Con- 
gress, to meet May 10, 1775. 

The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts. — To re- 
place the assembly a " Provincial Congress," which grew 
out of the " Committees of Correspondence," met in Octo- 
ber, 1774. John Hancock was at its head. Its proceedings 
were distinctly warhke. A Committee of Safety was ap- 
pointed, with power to call out the militia. Provision was 
made for the collection of military stores. The other col- 
onies followed in the same spirit. Patrick Henry, in March, 
1775, spoke the general sentiment, when he told the Vir- 
ginia convention that they must fight, and uttered these 
ringing words : "As for me, give me liberty or give me 
death !" 

The Existence of Rebellion. — The time had come. In 
February, 1775, Parliament declared that rebellion existed 
in Massachusetts, and a fleet and several thousand ad- 
ditional troops were ordered to Boston for its suppression. 
America was on the verge of war. 

The Minute-Men. — There was some warrant for the dec- 
laration that Massachusetts was in rebellion. Throughout 
the colony the people were organizing and drilling. Twelve 




THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 191 

fhoiisand militia were called out by the patriot authorities, 
one-third being " Minute-Men," — men ready to marcri ai?d 
fight at a minute's notice. 

Munitions of war were being gath- 
ered at various points. Here and there 
powder and cannon were taken from 
forts. From New York to Savannah 
defensive mea-3ures were adopted. 
The warlike spirit ruled throughout the 
colonies. 

England Unyielding. — It was prob- 
ably too late now to bring America back revolutionary soldier 
to loyalty. But neither king nor Parlia- 
ment showed any disposition to try. Pitt proposed measures 
of conciliation. They were rejected, and a bill was passed in 
March, 1775, prohibiting fishing on the banks of Newfound- 
land. At that time twenty thousand men were employed 
in these fisheries, and the measure was a severe blow to the 
industries of New England. 

Military Activity. — Meanwhile, General Gage was grow- 
ing alarmed at the spirit of the people. He fortified Boston 
Neck, seized certain military stores which had been collected 
at Cambridge and Charlestown, and sent an expedition by 
water to Salem, where he heard that some cannon had 
been hidden. The cannon were not found ; militia faced 
the troops arms in hand; no blood was shed, but the ex- 
pedition failed. 

A Perilous Enterprise. — This was in February, 1775. 
In April a more perilous enterprise was to be undertaken. 
General Gage had been ordered to arrest the two patriot 
leaders, Samuel Adams and John Hancock. He learned 
that they were then at Lexington, a village some ten miles 
from Boston. At Concord, twenty miles away, a collection 



192 FROM ('OLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

of military stores had been made. Gage determined to 
arrest these patriots and destroy these stores, and on the 
evening of April 18 sent out what he intended to be a secret 
expedition for that purpose. 

Paul Revere's Ride. — Late that night eight hundred 
regulars marched from the city. They had hardly started 
before Paul Revere ' and other mounted messengers were 
on the way to warn the people of their coming. The pa- 
triots had not been deceived. They had penetrated Gen- 
eral Gage's secret and were prepared to defeat it. 

Paul Revere rode swiftly on, rousing the people as he 
went. At Lexington he warned Adams and Hancock to 
flee. He was stopped by a patrol of British officers before 
reaching Concord, but contrived to send the news on 
Hours before the regulars reached that town the bulk of 
the stores were removed. 

The Volley at Lexington. — Lexington was reached 
about five o'clock in the morning of April 19. Major Pit- 
cairn, at the head of the advance, saw before him a body 
of minute-men drawn up on the village green. The critical 
moment had come. " Disperse, you rebels ! Throw down 
your arms and disperse !" cried the major. 

The minute-men stood still. Then the ominous word 
" Fire !" came from his lips. A rattle of musketry followed. 
Seven Americans fell dead. With that discharge the war 
of the American Revolution began. 

^ Paul Revere was an engraver by trade, and an earnest patriot. On 
the passage of the Roston Port Rill he had ridden to New York and 
Philadelphia with copies of the bill printed on mourning paper. On 
this occasion he is said to have waited in Charlestown till he saw two 
signal-lights flash from the steeple of the old North Church. Then he 
mounted and set out in haste. The lights told him that the soldiers 
were on the march. 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 193 

The Retreat from Concord. — The soldiers hurried on to 
Concord, where they destroyed what Httle remained of the 
stores. But the alarm was spreading, the people were gath- 
ering, every hour the position of the soldiers grew more 
dangerous. A fight ensued at Concord Bridge in which 
men fell on both sides. The minute-men held the bridge 
and the regulars began their retreat. 

They had stayed too long. The country was up. From 
every side armed farmers and villagers hurried to the 
road. From behind every wall and fence bullets pouied 
upon the troops. Their retreat became a flight. Over 
that dreadful ten miles to Lexington they hurried at all 
speed, numbers falling before the patriot fire. 

A Flight for Life. — At Lexington they found reinforce- 
ments, and flung themselves exhausted on the ground, 
" their tongues hanging from their mouths like those of 
dogs after a chase." After a period of rest the march was 
resumed. It was still a race for life. The minute-men 
increased continually in numbers. The whole British col- 
vmn was in danger of being cut off. At length Boston was 
reached, but nearly three hundred of the " red coats," as 
the Americans called them, lay dead or wounded along the 
road. The American loss was eighty-eight. 

Boston Besieged. — The note of war had sounded. The 
colonists were prepared. All that night minute-men 
marched upon Boston. All the next day the march kept 
up from more distant points. As the news spread the peo- 
ple rose. John Stark, of New Hampshire, a soldier of the 
late war, set out in haste with a body of his neighbors. 
Israel Putnam,^ of Connecticut, another hero of the war with 

^ Israel Putnam, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1718, proved 
himself a soldier of the highest courage and enterprise in the French 



194 



FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



France, left his work in the fields, mounted his horse, and 
in eighteen hours reached Boston, a hundred miles away. 

Within three days a 
force of sixteen thou- 
sand men had gath- 




BOSTON AND ViaNITY. 



ered, and the Brit- 
ish in Boston were 
closely besieged. 

The Colonies in 
Revolt. — America 
had without hesita- 
tion accepted war. 
The time for concili- 
ation had passed. 
The question must 
now be settled on the field of battle, not in the halls of 
council. In its excited state New England had been like 
a powder-magazine, which the first hostile discharge of a 

and Indian War. His adventures were many and striking. At Fort 
Edward he alone fought a fire that tlireatened the magazine, in which 
were three hundred barrels of powder. He was scorched into blisters 
from head to foot, but he saved the magazine. At another time he 
was taken prisoner by the Indians, tied to a stake, and a fire kindled 
round him. He was saved by a French officer, who dashed in and 
scattered the brands. In 1779 he made a famous escape from a party 
of British dragoons, spurring his horse down a stony declivity, which 
not one of his pursuers dared attempt. 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 



195 



British musket had kindled. As the news of Lexington and 
Concord spread over the country tlie' people everywhere 
rose in response. On the 10th of May, Ethan Allen, with 
a force of " Green Mountain Boys," took Fort Ticonderoga 
by surprise, and captured it without firing a shot.^ On the 
next day Seth Warner captured the fort at Crown Point. 
These victories gave the Americans a valuable store of 
cannon and ammunition, which was sorely needed. 

The Second Continental Congress. — On the same day 
that Ticonderoga was taken, Congress met again in Phila- 
delphia. Its tone was markedly 
different from that of the First 
Congress. Under the presidency 
of that John Hancock whom Gen- 
eral Gage had sought to arrest at 
Lexington, it took decisive steps. 
It' was not yet the Congress of a 
new nation. It recognized George 
III. as the " rightful sovereign" ot 
the American colonies. But it as- 
sumed control of the siege of Bos- 
ton, called for recruits from Virginia 
and the middle colonies, and chose 

George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the 
Continental army, as it was thenceforth called. It also 




John Hancock. 



^ Ethan Allen is said to have burst into the room of the commandanl 
and demanded an immediate and unconditional surrender of the fort. 
" By whose authority ?" asked the astounded officer. "In the name 
of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," thundered the 
Green Mountain leader. There v/as no resisting this demand. Later 
in the war Allen made an assault on Montreal with too weak a force; 
was taken prisoner, and spent several years in an English prison 
The people there looked upon him as an American prodigy. 



196 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

ordered the issue of two millica dollars in paper money, 
the first of the " Continental currency." 

The Provincial Congress. — The '' Provincial Congress" 
of Massachusetts resolved to raise an army of thirty thou- 
sand men, and appointed General Artemas Ward com- 
mander of the army at Boston. Putnam, Stark, and other 
veterans of the French and Indian War received important 
commands. 

While this was doing, fresh troops came from England. 
General William Howe took the place of Gage as com- 
mander, and had under him a force of more than ten thou- 
sand men.^ 

Bunker Hill. — Howe was not long in taking warlike 
steps. The heights in Charlestown known as Bunker and 
Breed's Hills overlooked the city, and would be dangerous 
to his position if the Americans should seize them. He 
resolved to occupy them. But before he could act the 
Americans had preceded him. On the morning of June 17 
he was astounded to perceive the heights intrenched and a 
strong force of " rebels" behind the works. 

General Ward had learned or guessed his plans and sent 
a force to occupy Bunker Hill. By mistake they selected 
Breed's Hill, nearer the city, and here all night long the 
provincials had been actively wielding the spade. At day- 
break some fifteen hundred men lay behind the works, 
under Colonel Prescott and Generals Putnam and Warren. 

The Battle. — At a glance Howe saw his danger. He 
must drive the patriots out or leave Boston with his army. 

'With him came Generals Clinton and Burgoyne. "What!" ex- 
claimed Burgoyne, as he saw the American intrenchments from the 
harbor, "ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king's troops shut 
up! Let us get in and we'll soon find elbow-room." Elbow-room 
Ihey found, but not till they went again to sea. 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 197 

Before daybreak the ships in the harbor opened fire on the 
works. The battery on Copp's Hill followed. But the 
Americans plied their shovels still. 

Noon had passed before the British were ready to attack. 
Then about three thousand men landed in Charlestown, and 
marched up the perilous hill. The Americans kept still. 
Their powder was scanty. " Don't fire till you see the 
whites of their eyes," said Prescott. At length the word 
came, a stream of musketry poured out, and hundreds of 
the British fell. Down the hill they went, driven as if by a 
storm of iron hail. 

Again they charged, and again were repulsed with heavy 
loss. Charlestown was now in flames. Howe had ordered 
it to be set on fire. A third assault was made, and this 
time with success. The Continentals had exhausted their 
powder. They had now only the butt-ends of their mus- 
kets with which to fight. Slowly and stubbornly they 
withdrew, fighting at every step. Howe had won the 
works, but with a loss of more than a thousand men. The 
American loss was less than five hundred, many of them 
only slightly wounded. But one of their best men had 
fallen, the patriotic General Warren, whose death was 
deeply felt. 

Lessons from Defeat. — More than one lesson was learned 
from this defeat. The British in particular learned that the 
Americans could and would fight. All through the rest of 
the war they were fearful of attacking American intrench- 
ments. Washington was then on his way to Boston to take 
command. On hearing of how the Americans had fought, 
he said, "The liberties of the country are safe." 

"Washington in Command. — Under a great elm near 
Harvard College, at Cambridge, Washington sat on his horse 
on the morning of July 3, while the patriot troops marched 



198 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

past. He saw before Jiim a brave but undisciplined army. 
It embraced about fourteen thousand men, but many of 
these were without muskets ; there were few bayonets ; 
cannon were needed ; powder was very scarce : the new 
commander had no slight task to perform. He set to work 
at once in the necessary labor of drilling and organizing 
these raw troops and of collecting munitions of war. 

The Invasion of Canada. — Durijig the summer it was 
learned that the British in Canada proposed to send an 
expedition to Northern New York. To prevent this Con- 
gress decided upon an invasion of Canada. General Rich- 
ard Montgomery descended Lake Champlain with two thou- 
sand men and captured Montreal. Benedict Arnold, who 
had taken part in the capture of Ticonderoga, set out with 
twelve hundred men for a journey through the wilderness 
of Maine. 

The Invasion Fails. — It was a terrible journey. The 
men were six weeks in the wilds, and were on"the verge of 
starvation when they at length emerged from the forest into 
the Canadian fields, Montgomery soon joined Arnold, and 
Quebec was besieged. On the last day of 1775 an assault 
was made. It was a desperate effort. More than two hun- 
dred cannon defended the walls. Montgomery was killed, 
Arnold wounded, and the army repulsed. Arnold contin- 
ued the siege till spring from behind ramparts of snow ; 
then, as reinforcements for the garrison approached, the 
Americans withdrew. The costly effort had proved an 
utter failure. 

The Hessians Hired, — Congress meanwhile made an at- 
tempt at reconciliation. A petition reached London in Au- 
gust, 1775. But the king was bent on conquest and refused 
to receive it. He replied by a proclamation, calling for 
volunteers to put down the rebellion in America, As vol- 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 199 

unteers came but slowly, he hired German troops for the 
purpose, obtaining in all nearly thirty thousand soldiers 
from the rulers of Hesse-Cassel and other small principal- 
ities. The hiring of these Hessians, as they were called, 
exasperated the Americans, and made them still more bit- 
terly resolved on winning their independence. 

Dorchester Heights Intrenched. — During the autumn 
and winter Washington 'kept up the siege of Boston. Want 
of powder and cannon prevented him from doing more. 
At length fifty cannon reached the camp. They had been 
dragged on ox-sleds from Ticonderoga to Boston, through 
two hundred miles of country that was largely unbroken 
forest. Their arrival enabled Washington to take a decisive 
step. Dorchester Heights, overlooking Boston on the south, 
remained unoccupied. One night in March Washington 
seized and intrenched them. The next morning Howe 
beheld these works with the same surprise as. he had 
gazed on Bunker Hill. A storm prevented an attack. By 
the time it was over the works were too strong to be taken. 

Boston Evacuated. — Washington's cannon commanded 
the city and the harbor. Nothing remained for the British 
but to withdraw. This they did on March 17, sailing for 
Hahfax with the garrison and eleven hundred Tory citizens. 
The Continentals marched in. Boston was a free city once 
more. No hostile army ever set foot in it again. 

The Assault on Fort Moultrie. — Washington did not 
remain long in Boston. In late April he marched his army 
to New York, which city he believed would be the next 
point of attack. But the British commanders had formed 
other plans. On June 28 their fleet attacked Fort Sullivan 
(afterward named Fort Moultrie), on Sullivan's Island, in 
the harbor of Charleston. 

The fort was built of palmetto logs, so spongy in texture 



200 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

that the balls sank into them without sphtting the Avood. 
In vain the ships poured their iron missiles upon its low- 
lying walls. Colonel Moultrie, in command, replied so effec- 
tively that the fleet lost heavily. At one time Admiral Par- 
ker stood alone on the deck of his flag-ship, every other 
man being swept off. Troops were landed, under General 
Clinton, and attacked the fort in the rear, but the fire of the 
riflemen drove them away.^ The attack had failed. The 
fleet set sail. Charleston was saved. More than two years 
passed before South Carolina again saw a British foe. 

Steps toward Independence. — While these events were 
taking place the spirit of revolution was making rapid prog- 
ress. The royal governors of the colonies found their 
subjects in a rebellious mood. In South Carolina and 
Georgia their authority was spurned and arms and ammu- 
nition were seized. In Virginia, Lord Dunmore, the gov- 
ernor, who had seized powder belonging to the colony and 
been forced to return it, was obliged to take shelter in a 
British man-of-war. In October, 1775, he attacked Hampton 
with a force of Tories and negroes. A battle took place at 
Great Bridge, near the Dismal Swamp. He was defeated, 
and in revenge burned Norfolk, a city of six thousand in- 
habitants. 

North CaroUna showed marked boldness. In May, 1775, 
the people of Mecklenburg County indicated their opinion 
of the Lexington assault in a series of resolutions in which 
they declared themselves free of allegiance to the British 

' During the action a ball struck the flag-staff, and the colors fell 
outside the walls. Sergeant Jasper boldly leaped down, heedless of the 
plunging balls, seized the flag, tied it to a new staff, and hoisted it again 
to its place. The next day a lieutenant's commission was offered him, 
6ut he refused it, saying, " I am only a sergeant; I am not fit for the 
company of officers." 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 201 

crown. On April 12, 1776, North Carolina authorized her 
delegates in the Continental Congress to declare for inde- 
pendence. On May 4, Rhode Island took a still bolder step, 
and virtually declared herself independent of Great Britain. 
On May 6, Virginia , took similar action. Other colonies 
moved in the same direction. It was evident that the sen- 
timent of loyalty was at an end, and that freedom from 
Great Britain was now the almost universal demand. 

Common Sense. — In January the king's proclamation 
calling for volunteers to put down the " rebellion" reached 
America. Simultaneously a remarkable pamphlet, named 
" Common Sense," was published in Philadelphia. It was 
written by the celebrated Thomas Paine, and boldly de- 
clared that the time had come for a " final separation" from 
Great Britain. It was read throughout the colonies, and its 
stirring tone filled all minds with the thirst for liberty. 
Soon after came the news that England was hiring Hessian 
troops. After that the desire .for independence was uni- 
versal. 

The Action of Congress. — Congress took its first action 
toward independence in June, 1776, in a resolution offered 
by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, " that these United 
Colonies are, and of right ought to be. Free and Independent 
States." John Adams seconded the resolution. A com- 
mittee of five, consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, 
Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Liv- 
ingston, was appointed to draw up a declaration in which 
that resolution should be suitably embodied. 

The Declaration of Independence. — Thomas Jefferson 
prepared the declaration. Lee's resolution was adopted on 
July 2 by the vote of twelve colonies (New York not voting). 
On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of American Independence 
was formally adopted by Congress, and signed by John Han- 



202 



FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



cock, President of Congress, in that bold hand which, as he 
said, " The King of England could read without spectacles.' 
His name was afterward followed by those of the other 
delegates.' With the signing of that document the thirteen 




Signing the Deci.aration of Inbependknce. 

American colonies of Great Britain ceased to exist ; the 
United States of America had taken their place.^ 



' While the signing was going on John Hancock remarked, " We 
must be unanimous ; there must be no pulling different ways ; we must 
hang together." "Yes," said Franklin, "we must all hang together 
or else we shall all hang separately." 

^ There is a legend that the ringer of the famous old State House 
bell waited in the belfry for news of the passage of the Declaration. 
He had placed his son in the hall below to warn him of the event. 
A.t length he heard the boy in the street, clapping his hands and 
shouting, " Ring! Ring!" In a moment more the peal of liberty 
sounded far and wide from the bell, on which, as if by inspiration, 
had been placed the inscription, " Proclaim liberty throughout the 
land unto all the inhabitants thereof." This bell is now the most 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 203 

3. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 

Howe and Washing'ton at New York. — At the date of 
the signing of the Declaration of Independence the British 
fleet was hovering off the harbor of New York. It contained 
an army of more than twenty-five thousand men, under 
General Howe. Washington, foreseeing that New York 
would be the next point of attack, had made vigorous efforts 
to fortify that city, and had thrown up defensive works on 
the hills south of Brooklyn. His army, however, was in- 
ferior in number and much inferior in discipline and equip- 
ment to that of his enemy. 

The Control of the Hudson. — The British military au- 
thorities had now devised a definite plan of act'-on, and 
Washington had foreseen that plan. This was to gain con- 
trol of the Hudson and Lake Champlain. By this means 
New England would be cut off from the other colonies, and 
the latter, which had shown less ardor in the rebellion, 
might be subdued, leaving New England to be dealt with 
alone. The British fleet already commanded the sea. This 
movement would enable it to control the land, and the 
colonies would be cut in half. 

Carleton and Arnold. — This danger had been early per- 
ceived. France had made a similar movement in the colo- 
nial war. Montgomery and Arnold had been sent against 
Quebec to prevent it. Their defeat opened the route to 
Carleton, in command at Quebec, and in the autumn of 1776 
he descended Lake Champlain with a fleet and army to 
attack Ticonderoga. Benedict Arnold met him on October 

cherished and sacred of American relics. Cracked and voiceless, it is 
looked upon by Americans as the Palladium of their liberties, and is 
kept in the State House as in the central shrine of the great American 
republic. 

14 



204 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

11 with a smaller fleet, and a fierce and obstinate fight took 
place. Arnold lost the battle, but escaped with his vessels. 
He had, however, gained his end, Carleton being so severely 
handled that he was obliged to give up his purpose and 
return to Montreal. 

The Battle of Long Island. — Meanwhile, Howe had been 
more successful. On the 27th of August he attacked the 
defences on Long Island, flanked them by a long march, 
and defeated the American army, taking one thousand pris- 
oners. The remainder fell back to the works on Brooklyn 
Heights. Here they lay for two days, expecting an attack, 
but Howe, remembering Bunker Hill, preferred to try the 
effect of a siege. 

Fortunately, the second night was dark and foggy. When 
day dawned on the following morning the English looked 
for their foes in vain, not one was to be seen.^ Washington 
had skilfully carried them all to New York in boats during 
the night.^ 

The British Take New York. — The fortifications which 
Washington had built in New York were soon rendered 
useless. The British fleet moved up the East River (Long 

' A woman sent her negro servant to the British samp to inform 
Howe of the movements of the Americans. By good fortune he fell 
into the hands of the Hessians, who, not understanding a word he 
said, held him prisoner till morning. By that time his message was 
useless. 

^ Captain Nathan Hale, a patriot of the noblest devotion, was sent by 
Washington to Long Island to gain information of the movements of 
the British. Though disguised, he was seen anc" recognized by a Tv" 
relative, taken prisoner, and executed as a spy. He was treated with 
cruel harshness, being denied the use of a Bible, while his letters to 
his mother and sister were destroyed. His last words have be- 
come historical : " I regret only that I have but one life to give to mj 
country." 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 205 

Island Sound) and landed troops in his rear, and he was 
oblige(J to make a hasty retreat. For two months now the 
armies faced each other, Washington slowly drawing back 
from point to point, but keeping the foe steadily in check. 
The British defeated a part of his army at White Plains, but 
lost heavily in the effort. 

The Loss of Fort Washington. — Two works, Forts Lee 
and Washington, had been built on the opposite sides of 
the Hudson to keep back the British fleet. On November 16, 
Howe attacked Fort Washington, the work on the New York 
side. Washington had ordered the abandonment of this fort, 
but his orders had been disregarded. The result was serious, 
the British took the fort by storm, and made prisoners of 
its garrison of more than two thousand five hundred men. 

Fort Lee Evacuated. — This was a severe blow to Wash- 
ington's weak army. Fort Lee was soon after threatened, 
but its garrison had been wisely withdrawn, the work being 
now useless. The loss of these forts, however, did not 
leave the Hudson open to the enemy. A new wotk had 
been built on the commanding situation at West Point. 

The Retreat to the Delaware. — Cornwallis, a British 
general, had now crossed the Hudson with a strong force. 
It was evident that, having taken New York, Howe proposed 
to attempt the capture of Philadelphia, the capital of the 
new republic. Washington, who had also crossed the Hud- 
son into New Jersey, prepared to oppose this movement, 
and for this purpose ordered General Lee, who was at 
Northcastle, east of the Hudson, with seven thousand men, 
to join him without delay. Lee disobeyed, and left his su- 
perior to face the enemy alone.^ This Washington did not 

^ Charles Lee was of British birth. He had served the colonies in 
the French and Indian War, and had afterward done some fighting in 



206 



FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



dare attempt with his small force, 
step across New Jer- 
sey, breaking down 
the bridges as he 
went, and constantly 
pursued by Cornwal- 
lis. For three weeks 
this pursuit contin- 
ued. 



He retreated step by 




The Delaware reached, 
Washington seized all 
the boats for a long dis- 
tance along that stream, 
crossed to the Pennsyl- 
vania side, and left 

The New Jersey Campaign. Comwallis Unable to 

cross until the river 
should freeze. Winter being now upon him, the British 



Europe. Returning to America, he had souglit to obtain the chief com- 
mand from Congress, and was disappointed on being made second to 
Washington. Jealousy prompted him to dishonor and treachery. In 
addition to disobeying orders, lie wrote letters to prominent persons 
slandering Washington. After Washington's retreat, he crossed to New 
Jersey, and there, sleeping outside his army lines, was taken prisoner 
by a party of British dragoons. General Sullivan then took command, 
and hastened to join Washington. It has lately been learned, from 
the discovery of Howe's papers, that Lee betrayed the American cause 
while a prisoner, giving Howe all the information he could about 
Washington's plans. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



207 



commander quartered his troops in the villages near the 
Delaware, and waited the work of the frost. 

Discouragement of the Americans. — The American 
cause was now in a serious state. Washington's small army 
was ragged and disheartened. New recruits were not to be 
had. The time of enlistment of many of the soldiers would 
expire at the end of the year, and there was no hope that 




"T^UPJioi^^.-hi;//- 



Washtnoton's AR>n' CnassiNG the Delaware. 



they would re-enlist. To the capture of New York had been 
added that of Newport. Congress had fled from Philadel- 
phia. Many persons of prominence had returned to their 
allegiance to George III. It looked as if the revolution was 
rapidly nearing its end. 

The Victory at Trenton. — Such was the situation near 
the end of 1776. By a daring stroke Washington completely 
changed it, and brought hope out of depression. Feeling 
that he must act at once or all would be lost, he crossed 
the Delaware on Christmas-night, in a storm of snow and 
sleet and amid the floating ice, marched his two thousand 



208 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

five hundred men nine miles through the storm, and at 
break of day fell upon the Hessian force stationed at Tren- 
ton. Taken by surprise, they made but little resistance. 
Their colonel ' fell mortally wounded, and one thousand pris- 
oners were taken, while the Americans lost but four men, — 
two of whom had been frozen to death. This done, Wash- 
ington recrossed the Delaware with his prisoners. 

The Result of the Victory. — This unlooked for victory 
had an electrical effect. It dismayed the British ; it inspired 
the Americans. Depression changed suddenly to exulta- 
tion. Those whose time was about to expire agreed to 
remain. New recruits came in. The situation had com- 
pletely changed. Despair was everywhere replaced by 
hopefulness. 

Howe was alarmed. The outlying detachmenti; on the 
Delaware were hastily withdrawn, lest they should suffer 
the same fate. Cornwallis, who had gone to New York to 
sail for England, with the belief that the war was virtually 
at an end, was ordered to return and face the foe. On the 
2d of January he reached Trenton, where Washington, who 
had now recrossed the Delaware with his whole force, lay 
intrenched behind a small stream. 

■Washington at Princeton. — Cornwallis deferred his at- 
tack on Washington's breastworks until the following morn- 
ing. At sunrise he was aroused by a sound which he 
thought to be distant thunder, but which he soon learned was 
the roar of far-off cannon. Washington had completely 

* Rahl, the Hessian commander, had feasted that Christmas-night at 
Trenton, wine and cards keeping the party up till daylight. At dawn 
a messenger brought a note telling of the coming of the Americans. 
The servant refused him admittance, but took the note to the com- 
mander, who thrust it unopened into his pocket. As a result, the 
sound of musketry first warned him of his peril. 



u 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 209 

outgeneralled him. Knowing that he had not the force to 
meet the battalions of Cornwallis, he had marched away in 
the night, leaving fires burning and sentries posted, and at 
early dawn had fallen on a British force at Princeton, This 
he drove back in defeat, took over two hundred prisoners, 
and then marched to a strong position on the heights about 
Morristown, where he defied the foe.^ 

Results of the Victory. — The whole British plan of cam- 
paign had been destroyed by a single blow. With Wash- 
ington in that position, ready to pounce on any outlying 
force, Howe was obliged to withdraw his troops, and to 
give up for the time the purpose to take Philadelphia. 

The news of the skilful movement of Washington changed 
the feeling in Europe. It had been believed that the Amer- 
ican cause was lost. Now the French began to consider an 
alliance with the Americans. They had not forgiven Eng- 
land for their late defeat, and here seemed an opportunity 
for revenge. The Marquis de Lafayette, a noble young 
Frenchman, fitted out a ship at his own expense, and 
offered his services to Congress as a volunteer. Other 
European officers followed him to America. 

The Campaig-n of 1777. — With the opening of the new 
year the British made vigorous preparations to carry out 
the plans in which they had failed the year before. These 

^ Washington was in imminent peril at Princeton. A fierce charge 
of the British threw the Americans into confusion,- and a panic flight 
seemed probable. Washington, who just then came up, called loudly 
on the troops to rally, and rode forward until he was between the two 
lines. A volley from the British line was followed by one from the 
American, neither party seeing the endangered general, who was con- 
cealed by the smoke. When the smoke lifted, he was seen sitting his 
horse unhurt. Inspired by his courage, the Americans rushed forward 
with such intrepidity that the foe was driven back and defeat turned 
into victory. 



210 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

were the cutting off of New England by occupying the line 
of the Hudson and Lake Champlain, and the capture of 
Philadelphia. The first of these movements was to be 
made by three armies. General John Burgoyne was to 
come down from Canada by way of Lake Champlain with 
a force of about nine thousand men. A second army 
about two thousand strong, under Colonel St. Leger, was 
to march overland from Oswego, on Lake Ontario, and to 
enlist a force of Indians on the way. Howe, with not less 
than eighteen thousand men, was to move up the Hudson 
and unite with Burgoyne. With armies so strong as these 
success seemed certain, and it was hoped that the " re- 
bellion" would be dealt a crushing blow. 

Howe's Blunder. — There were two things in favor of the 
Americans. One was the ability of Washington and liis 
leading officers. The other was the attempt of the British 
to do too much. Instead of confining himself to the one 
important duty of aiding Burgoyne, Howe proposed to take 
Philadelphia first and help Burgoyne afterward. By at- 
tempting this double work he succeeded in ruining the 
whole plan of campaign. 

Howe Sails to the Chesapeake. — Howe set out in June 
to cross New Jersey to Philadelphia. But he found Wash- 
ington so alert that he was obliged to give up this design 
and proceed by sea. The summer was well gone by the 
time he was ready to set sail. He had intended to go up 
the Delaware, but, perhaps fearing obstructions in tlie river, 
he sailed for Chesapeake Bay instead, and landed his army 
of eighteen thousand men at Elkton, Maryland.^ Thence 
he started to march overland upon Philadelphia. 

* From Howe's recently discovered papers it is learned that General 
Lee advised him to take Philadelphia, "the rebel capital, which would 




The Chew House. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 211 

Brandywine and Germantown. — Washington made a 
vigorous effort to check this march. With an army of 
eleven thousand men he met Howe (September 11) on 
Brandywine Creek. 
Howe proved too strong 
for him, and he was 
driven back with con- 
siderable loss. But the 
defeat was not a serious 
one, and Washington was 
able to detain Howe for 
two weeks on his march 
to Philadelphia. 

The British were not left unmolested in Philadelphia. 
On October 4, Washington attacked them at Germantown, 
just north of the city, and with considerable promise of suc- 
cess. But the British turned a large stone house (Chew's 
House) into a temporary fort, and by their fire stopped 
the American advance. A dense fog, in which two Ameri- 
can divisions fired into each other, completed the disaster, 
and a retreat became necessary. 

Aid for Burgoyne. — But Washington, though failing to 
save Philadelphia, had given Howe so much trouble that he 
felt it necessary to draw more troops from New York, thus 
leaving none to send to the aid of Burgoyne. Eventually a 
new force of three thousand men, just arrived from Eng- 
land, w^as sent up the Hudson under General Clinton on 
the day of the battle of Germantown. It came too late to 
save Burgoyne. 



destroy the rebel governmeni." He also suggested an expedition up 
Chesapeake Bay, to prevent aid being sent from Virginia or Maryland. 
In the end the two purposes seem to have been combined. 



212* 



FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 




Washington's llKAi'-tiUAKTERs at Val- 
ley FOKGE. 



Valley Forge. — As it was now late in the season, Wash- 
ington went into winter quarters at Valley Forge, on the 

Schuylkill River, from 
which place he could 
watch the movements 
of his foes. The winter 
spent there was a dread- 
ful one. It was terribly 
cold, and tlie soldiers 
sadly lacked shelter, food, 
and clothes. On Decem- 
ber 23, Washington wrote 
that nearly three thou- 
sand of his men were 
" unfit for duty, because they were barefoot and otherwise 
naked." 

Burgoyne's March. — While these events were taking 
place in the south, others, more promising to the American 
cause, were occurring in the north. Burgoyne, with nearly 
eight thousand regulars and an additional force of Cana- 
dians and Indians, was descending Lake Champlain, with 
the well-devised purpose of cutting off New England from 
the more southern States. General St. Clair held Ticon- 
deroga, but was too weak to retain it, and on the 5th of 
July withdrew and left it to the invaders. Two days after- 
ward the Americans were defeated at Hubbardton, with 
severe loss. 

General Schuyler, in command of the small American 
army, retired slowly before the enemy, so obstructing the 
road by felling trees and destroying bridges that it was the 
end of July before Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, on the 
upper Hudson. By this time he was beginning to feel the 
need of provisions and supplies. At the same time the 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



213 



A.merican army was increasing. Lincoln and Arnold had 

joined Schuyler with reinforcements, and Washington had 

sent him Morgan with his famous 

riflemen. The outrages of Bur- 

gojnie's Indian auxiliaries had also 

stirred up the people, and many 

militiamen joined the army. 

The Battle of Bennington. — At 
Bennington, in the southwest cor- 
ner of Vermont, the Americans had 
gathered a supply of stores. These 
Burgoyne badly needed, and sent 
Colonel Baum with a force of one 
thousand men to capture them. 
But the Green Mountain Boys were 
again in the field, with the redoubt- 
able Colonel Stark at their head. 
The invaders were mostly Hes- 
sians, and their commander knew 
httle of American warfare. On 
the 16th of August they found 
themselves in a trap. Stark's men 
surrounded them. 

" There are the red-coats !" ex- 
claimed the veteran ; " we must beat them to-day, or Betty 
Stark is a widow." Beat them they did. Of the whole 
force, only about seventy returned to Burgoyne. The re- 
mainder were killed or captured. The American loss was 
very small. 

St. Leger's March. — Meanwhile, St. Leger, on his way to 
reinforce Burgoyne at Albany, was having strange and serious 
adventures in the forest. Marching southward from Oswego 
through the primeval forest, and joined on his way by the 




Burgoyne's Route. 



214 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

famous Mohawk cliief, Joseph BranI, with a strong body of 
warriors, his first task was to capture the old stronghold, 
Fort Staiiwix (tlien Fort Schuyler), on the Mohawk River, 
near the present site of Rome, New York, 

Battle of Oriskany. — The fort was weakly garrisoned. 
But fear of Indian outrages roused the people, and a force 
of eight hundred militia, under General Herkimer, marched 
to its relief. On the 6th of August they fell into an ambush 
prepared by Brant in a deep ravine near Oriskany. An 
obstinate battle ensued. Herkimer was mortally wounded. 
Many of his men fell. In the end they drove off the In- 
dians, but were too weak to advance. 

The Stars and Stripes. — Meanwhile, a sortie was made 
from the fort, and St. Leger's camp captured and sacked. 
Five British flags were taken, and these were hung upside- 
down above the fort, while over them waved a rude flag 
made of scraps of a blue jacket and a white shirt, with bits 
of red flannel. It was the national stars and stripes, re- 
cently adopted, and now first unfolded to the breeze.^ 



* In the battle which the Virginia militia fought with Governor Dun- 
more, in 1775, some of them bore a banner with the device of a rattle- 
snake, and the injunction, " Don't tread on me !" It also bore Patrick 
Henry's words, " Liberty or death." This flag was replaced in M<assa- 
chusetts by one bearing a pine-tree, the favorite emblem of that colony, 
and the words, " An appeal to heaven." The flag hoisted by Colonel 
Moultrie on Fort Sullivan, in Charleston harbor, was blue in color, 
with a white or silver crescent in the right-hand corner, and the word 
"Liberty." Washington, at Cambridge, used a flag with thirteen red 
and white stripes and the British " Union Jack" in the corner. Another 
flag, of which a drawing exists, bore the thirteen stripes, with a rattle- 
snake undulating diagonally across them. Congress first adopted a 
flag in June, 1777, which bore thirteen stripes and thirteen stars re- 
placing the Union Jack. The first flag of this pattern was made by 
Betsy Ross, of Philadelphia. The new flag was first displayed at sea 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 



215 




Pine-Tkee P"j,ag, 



The British and Indian Panic. — Schuyler, learning of the 
peril of the garrison, sent Arnold with twelve hundred men 
to its relief. Arnold did his work by 
stratagem instead of arms. He held a 
half-witted Tory under sentence of death, 
but promised him liberty if he would 
seek St. Leger's camp and scare the In- 
dians with tales of a great force of Ameri- 
cans close at hand. The envoy did his 
work well. Running breathless among 
the savages, with bullet-holes adroitly 
shot through his clothes, he declared that 
he had barely escaped from a vast host, 
indicating their numbers by pointing to 
the leaves on the trees. 

The Indians, discouraged by their loss 
at Oriskany, took hastily to flight. The 
British followed, in such a panic that 
they left their tents and artillery behind 
th(^m, to become the prey of the astonished garrison, who 
knew nothing of the cause of the flight. Arnold had de- 
feated them by the mere news of his coming. 

Burgoyne in Difficulties. — The loss of Baum and St. 
Leger was critical to Burgoyne. His Indians were leaving 
him. The emboldened militia were cutting off his commu- 
nication with Lake Champlain. There were no signs of aid 
from Howe. He was in a dangerous situation, in which it 
was becoming almost impossible either to advance or retreat. 




Rattlesnake Flag. 



at the mast-head of Paul Jones's ship, the Ranger, was saluted by 
France, February 13, 1778, and floated above the Ranger during her 
battle with the Drake, April 24, 1778. The flag still bears thirteen 
Stripes, but a new star has been added for every new State. 



216 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

foes surrounded him on all sides. His only hope seemed 
to be to reach Albany. 

Gates in Command. — Meanwhile, Schuyler, through the 
arts of political enemies, had been removed from his com- 
mand and replaced by General Gates, a man who showed 
himself incapable in all his later career. Fortunately, 
Schuyler already had Burgoyne in a trap from which he 
could not escape. 

The Test of Battle. — On September 19 the two armies 
met at Freeman's Farm, below Saratoga. The battle was 
fierce and obstinate. It ended after nightfall with both 
parties holding their ground. Two weeks passed. Bur- 
goyne's provisions were nearly gone. He must fight or 
yield. On October 7 he again attacked the Americans. 
Arnold, who had been removed from his command, became 
a volunteer leader of the patriot forces, and to his impetuous 
courage victory was due. He fell with a leg broken by a 
musket-ball just as victory was gained. The British had 
lost heavily in men and stores. 

Burgoyne Surrenders. — Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga. 
There he was surrounded and hotly besieged. His provisions 
were gone. The Indians and Tories had deserted. Clinton 
had not appeared. Only one thing remained to do. On 
the 17th he surrendered the remnant of his army to General 
Gates.^ 

Results of the Surrender. — The battle of Saratoga has 
been classed among the fifteen decisive battles of the world's 
history. The surrender of Burgoyne was the turning-point 
in the struggle for independence. The result filled the 



^ Burgoyne had boasted that he would eat his Christmas-dinner in 
Albany. He ate dinner there before Christmas — as a prisoner and the 
guest of General Schuyler. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 217 

Americans with joy and confidence. It filled the English 
with despair. At one blow a third of their army in America 
had vanished, and the well-laid plan of the king and min- 
istry had utterly failed. Hopeless of success, Lord North 
sought for peace, offering the Americans everything they 
had asked except independence. He was too late. Inde- 
pendence was the one thing they were determined to have ; 
with that all the others would come. 

A Treaty with Prance. — Meanwhile, Dr. Franklin was 
doing excellent work in France. Highly esteemed there 
for his character and his scientific and literary work, he had 
great influence at court, which he employed to obtain aid 
and alliance. The defeat of Burgoyne won him success. 
On February 6, 1778, a treaty was signed with France in 
which that nation recognized the independence of the 
United States and promised vital aid to the American cause. 

The Conway Cabal. — In the mean time Washington — 
whose suffering army lay at Valley Forge almost destitute 
of food, clothing, and shelter, decimated by disease, and 
tracking the frozen ground with blood from their bare feet 
— was being hounded by enemies in high places. An in- 
trigue was organized to force him to resign his command 
and yield it to Gates, then in high favor. This was known 
as the " Conway Cabal," from the name of one of the plot- 
ters. Fortunately for the country it utterly failed. It suc- 
ceeded, however, in influencing many members of Congress 
against Washington, and the sufferings of the army were 
not due to want of means, but to shameful interference with 
and mismanagement of the department of supplies. Con- 
gress had ceased to be the wise and patriotic body of 1776, 
and was imperilling the country by its ignorance of and its 
meddling with military matters. 

Aid from France. — In 1778 the British cause in America 



218 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

declined. Two months after signing the treaty of alliance. 
France sent over a powerful fleet under Count d'Estaing, 
having on board four thousand troops. It had at last an 
opportunity to repay Great Britain for the humiliating treaty 
of fifteen years before. 

D'Estaing reached Delaware Bay in July. He hoped to 
capture the British fleet, but it had taken the alarm and 
sailed away. But the news of his coming drove the British 
from Philadelphia, where they had spent the winter in a 
comfort which was in striking contrast to the condition of 
the starving army at Valley Forge. 

The British Leave Philadelphia. — Sir Henry Clinton had 
succeeded Howe in command of the British forces. On 
June 18, in dread of being shut up between the Americans 
and French, he evacuated Philadelphia. AVashington, who 
was keenly alert to every movement of the enemy, pursued 
in haste. Despite the suffering of the army during the win- 
ter, it w^as better disciplined than ever before. Baron Steu- 
ben, a skilled Prussian soldier, had actively drilled it, and 
had brought the American troops up to the full efficiency of 
British regulars.^ 

The Battle of Monmouth. — The British were overtaken 
at Monmouth (now^ Freehold) on June 28, and a battle en- 
sued. Victory was lost through the misconduct of Gen- 
eral Charles Lee, who had been exchanged ^ and now led 

' Steuben began with one hundred and twenty men, whom he drilled 
twice daily, showing them how the musket should be used by taking it 
in his own hands. Hitherto their only use for the bayonet had been to 
roast their meat on it. During the next year they took Stony Point 
with the bayonet alone. Steuben had received his military education 
in the best school in Europe, that of the army of Frederick the Great. 

■'' General Lee's exchange had arisen from a daring act. General 
Prescott. in command of the British forces in Rhode Island, had, like 



THE STRIJG(iLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 219 

the advance. He ordered a retreat just when success was 
most promising. Washington rode up at that moment, 
burst into one of his rare fits of anger, and bitterly rebuked 
Lee. Then rallying the men, he led them against the foe. 
Clinton was driven back, and at midnight secretly withdrew 
his forces to Sandy Hook, whence he made his way to New 
York.^ Lee was tried by court-martial, suspended from 
command, and finally expelled from the army. 

The French Fleet. — The battle of Monmouth was the 
last important contest in the Northern States. For the re- 
mainder of the war the chief seat of conflict was at the 
South. But there were several events that need mention. 
On leaving Delaware Bay, Count d'Estaing sailed for New 
York, hoping to capture it, but found that his largest ships 
could not cross the bar. Thence he sailed to Newport,' the 
only other place which the British held. Here a storm in- 
jured his vessels and he sailed to Boston to refit. General 
Sullivan, who was prepared to co-operate with a land fqrce, 
was in consequence obliged to retreat, leaving Newport still 
in British hands. 

The Massacre of Wyoming'. — In July a band of Indians 
and Tories entered the beautiful and peaceful valley of 
Wyoming, in Northern Pennsylvania, and committed fright- 
Lee himself, become negligent, and a plan was laid for his capture. 
Colonel Barton rowed to the vicinity of his quarters in whale-boats, 
broke in, and carried the general off, from amid his troops and fleet. 
Howe willingly exchanged Lee for him, perhaps believing that he would 
be of more value to the British cause free than a prisoner. 

' During the day Moll Pitcher, the wife of an artilleryman, while 
bringing water to her husband, saw him fall at his gun. Dropping her 
pail, she ran to the gun, seized the rammer, and seiwed the piece with 
the ability of an expert. She was afterward known by the soldiers as 
Major Molly, and given a sergeant's commission by Congress, with half- 
pay pension. 



220 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

ful devastations. The settlers were defeated and butchered, 
the dwellings and mills committed to the flames, and the 
v/omen and children forced to flee for their lives into the 
wilderness. The village of Cherry Valley, New York, met 
with a similar fate, and numerous other atrocities were com^ 
mitted. 

Clark's Operations in the West. — There were serious 
Indian depredations also on the western frontier. Governor 
Hamilton, of Detroit, sent out marauding bands, whom he 
paid for all scalps brought in. His work of butchery was 
brought to an end by Colonel George Rogers Clark, a Ken- 
tucky hunter, who with less than two hundred men marched 
far through the wilderness, captured Kaskaskia and Caho- 
kia, in Illinois, and marched against Hamilton, then at Vin- 
cenhes, on the Wabash. He was successful in capturing 
the town and the fort and in making Hamilton prisoner. 
This success, it is thought, saved the northwest to the United 
States in the subsequent treaty of peace. 

The Indians Punished, — The policy of employing the 
Indians, and of inciting them to torture and massacre, pur- 
sued by the British, met with many opponents in England.' 
In 1779 Congress resolved to put an end to it by rendering 
the Six Nations incapable of further mischief. An expedi- 
tion was sent against them under General Sullivan. The 
Indians laid an ambush for him at the site of Elmira, but 
were defeated with overwhelming loss. He then marched 
into their country and utterly devastated it, burning more 
than forty villages, destroying their orchards and granaries, 
and leaving them without food or shelter in the severe 

* Pitt denounced in Parliament the employment of Hessians and sav- 
ages. " If I were an American, as I am an Englishman," he exclaimed. 
" while a foreign troop was landed in my country, I never would laj 
down my arms, — never, never, never !" 



THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 221 

winter that followed. The blow was one from which they 
never recovered, and there was no more trouble with the 
Indians during the war. 

Storming of Stony Point. — One further important affair 
took place in the North during 1779. Washington planned 
an assault on the British fort at Stony Point, on the Hudson, 
and it was brilliantly carried out by General Anthony Wayne. 
The fort was taken by surprise, Wayne and his men march- 
ing on a dark night, with unloaded muskets, over the cause- 
way that led through the marshes to the fort. Then ascend- 
ing the hill, they rushed on the works with the bayonet, 
and in a few minutes the fort was 
theirs and its garrison were prisoners. 
Removing the valuable stores, they 
destroyed the works and returned to 
camp. The fort at Paulus Hook (on 
the site of Jersey City) was taken 
in the same manner. These suc- 
cesses put an end to the marauding 
expeditions which Clinton was send- 
ing into Connecticut. 

. Anthony Wayne. 

A Great Ocean Victory. — Durmg 
the years named the Americans had done little on the ocean. 
Privateers had taken numerous prizes, but the lack of war 
vessels prevented any further success. In 1779 there was 
a change. Paul Jones, a bold seaman of Scotch birth, made 
a daring raid on the British coast, Avhere he burned shipping 
lying in harbor. On September 23, being then in command 
of the Bon Homme Richard and some smaller ships, sup- 
plied by France, he met a British merchant fleet convoyed 
by the frigate Serapis and a smaller consort. 

The Richard was much inferior to the Serapis in weight 
of guns and general efficiency. But it had Paul Jones for 





222 f'ROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

commander, a man who did not know when he was whipped 
As the battle went on the ships met and Avere lashed together. 
Tlie fighting now became desperate. 
The Richard was riddled by the 
guns of the Serapis, and was filling 
with water, while its upper works 
were on fire. But Jones fought on 
unyieldingly. In the end the Sera- 
pis was forced to surrender, nearly 
its whole crew being killed or 
wounded. Commodore Jones trans- 
ferred his men and colors to the 
prize and left the Richard to the 
waves, into which it soon sank. The spirit of this remark- 
able man is shown by his reply to the captain of the Serapis, 
who hailed him in the height of the battle and asked if he 
had struck his colors. Jones roared back through the din, 
" I have not yet begun to fight." 

A Statement of Results. — Four years of war in the 
North had passed, and all the British had to show, in 
return for their strenuous efforts and costly armaments, 
was the possession of two towns. New York and New^port. 
For these they had paid far more than the towns were 
worth. The colonists had withstood them successfully, 
but not without great loss and suffering. Their armies 
were poorly sustained, the men poorly clad and fed, Wash- 
ington feebly seconded in his efforts, the people at times 
greatly depressed and despairing. Yet for all this there 
seems to have been no absolute need. 

The true strength of the colonies was really never put 
forth. ■ The Continental Congress grew weaker as it grew 
older. The wisdom of its early councils was replaced by 
feebleness and inefficiency. Its members listened to de- 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 223 

tractions of Washington and liampered him in his efforts. 
Tlie energetic Schuyler was replaced at the moment of 
victory by the feeble Gates. The treacherous Lee was 
again made second in command. The army was needlessly 
allowed to starve and freeze at Valley Forge. The paper 
money issued was sustained by no regular system of taxa- 
tion, and rapidly sank in value. No effort was made for a 
close union of the colonies, and they drifted apart rather 
than flowed together. There was no unity of effort, no 
central authority, no definite system of finance. Of the 
people, the mass of them worked quietly on their farms, 
knowing of the war only as news of distant operations, and 
not supporting it as they might have done under a better 
administration of affairs. Thus, under this loose combina- 
tion of thirteen colonies, each working by itself and some 
doing very little for the cause, the one thing surprising is 
that the invaders made so little progress. It was mainly 
due to two things, — the inefficiency of their generals and 
officials, and the masterly generalship of the American 
commander, George Washington. 

4. THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 

The British go South. — As if despairing of success in the 
North, the British now turned their attention to the South, 
hoping probably to capture and hold the Southern colonies. 
In December, 1778, Savannah was attacked in force and 
easily taken. Augusta was next captured, and the thinly- 
settled Georgia fell under British control. Prevost, the 
British general, now advanced against Charleston, but find- 
ing himself pursued by General Lincoln, in command of 
the American militia, he hastened to return. 

The Repulse at Savannah. — Nothing further of impor- 
tance was douQ until September, 1779, when General Lirj- 



224 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

colli, aidoii by tho Fiviuh llt>ot iiiuitM- l'>'Kslain>r, attempted 
to reeaptuiv Savannah. The etVorl pnned disat^trous. In 
the assanlt more than a thtMisand men were shiin and the 
Americans repnlsed. Amon^ tiie dead was Connt Pnlaski, 
a noble l\ile wlio haii joined tlie American canse. Tiie 
brave Seiyeant Jasper also tell, in his hands the banner 
which his rejriment had received at Fort Monltrie. 

The Loss of Charleston. — Cieop^ria having been snbdued, 
the British turned their strength against South Carolina. 
In the spring of 1780 General Clinton led a powerful force 
against Charleston, then defended by General Lincoln. 
Attacked by land ami sea, besieged for forty days, and for 
forty-eight honi-s exposed to a bombardment from two 
hundred cannon, Lincoln was at length forced to surrender, 
and on May 12 the leading city of tlie South fell into British 
hands. 

South Cai'olma Overrun. — Clinton now returned nortli, 
leaving Cornwallis in command. He prepared to overrun 
South Carolina, as liis predecessor had Ceoi-gia. Expe- 
ditions were sent in several directions through the State, 
the only etVicient resistance being that made by the partisan 
commandei"s, Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and otliers, who at 
tlie head of small but active forces greatly annoyed the in- 
vaders, cut otf detachments, and made South Carolina a 
very hot place to hold. On the British side the main suc- 
cess was due to tJie hard-riding Colonel Tarleton, whose 
daring was vitiated by ruthless cruelty. 

Gates Defeated. — Meanwhile, with great exertitms. an 
army had been collected in North Carolina and pUned 
under the command of General Gates, who was still given 
credit as " the conqueror of Burgoyne." The two armies 
met at Camden, in South Carolina, on August 16, 1780. 
In the battle that ensued the militia broke before the 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 225 

charge of the British regulars, and the few Continental 
regiments were overwhelmed. No American army ever 
suffered a worse defeat. The militia were completely scat- 
tered, Gates being seen soon afterward eighty miles distant 
and without a soldier. Two days later Sumter's forces 
were met and almost annihilated by Tarleton's dragoons. 
When summer ended South Carolina was at the mercy of 
Cornwallis, the only resistance left being that of Marion and 
his fellow-partisans. 

Tory "Warfare. — The Carolinas were full of Tories, many 
of whom joined the British army, while others plundered 
and murdered their patriot neighbors. Against these the 
partisan warfare was largely directed. On October 7 a 
force of eleven hundred British and Tories was attacked at 
King's Mountain by hastily gathered frontier riflemen, and 
utterly defeated, four hundred and fifty-six being killed 
and wounded and the rest taken prisoners. 

Marion's Method. — Marion, the most famous of the par- 
tisan leaders, had but a small force under his command, 
and lurked in swamps and forests, sallying out unexpect- 
edly upon detached bands. In this way the foe were bit- 
terly annoyed, and lost heavily in the aggregate from these 
stinging attacks, for which they in vain sought revenge. 
Marion was only to be found when he was ready to strike.^ 



^ Among the interesting anecdotes told of this active warrior is the 
following : A British officer, who had been sent to negotiate an ex- 
change of prisoners, found Marion on a sort of woodland island in the 
swamps, and was invited by him to dine. The dinner consisted of 
sweet potatoes, roasted and served on bark platters. The officer was 
surprised to learn that his host considered this as ample diet, that he 
often fared worse, and at that time had neither blanket nor hat. On 
his return the officer resigned his commission, saying that it was 
useless to fight against men who mado war on fare like this. 



226 



FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



The Treason of Arnold. — While these events were taking 
place in the South, a startling occurrence had happened in 
the North, the most saddening event of the Revolution. 
Benedict Arnold, the trusted friend of Washington, one of 
the ablest of the American generals, and the true winner 
of the victories at Saratoga, had turned traitor. He had 
agreed to surrender West Point, of which he was in com- 
mand, to the British. 

Though brave and able as a general, he \vas weak 
morally. He believed that he had been ill-treated by Con- 
gress, and, marrying a Tory lady in 1778, his patriotism 
weakened. He grew so extravagant and behaved so badly 
that he was tried and sentenced to be reprimanded by the 
commander-in-chief. Washington did this gently, and at 
Arnold's request gave him the command of the fortress at 
West Point, — a post of great importance from its control of 
the Hudson. 

The Capture of Andre. — Full of revengeful feelings, Ar- 
nold proposed to Clinton to 
surrender this post to the Brit- 
ish. Major Andre was sent 
to confer with him. They had 
a secret meeting and arranged 
their plans, but Andre was 
obliged to return by land. On 
his way he was captured by 
three patriot scouts, who 
searched him and found in his boot papers that proved him 
a spy. 

Arnold's Reward. — Word reached Arnold of Andre's 
capture, and he fled in haste to a British vessel in the river. 
Andre was hanged as a spy, despite all Clinton's efforls to 
obtain his release. Arnold received a money reward for 




The Andr*: Captors" Medal. 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 227 

his treason, was made a colonel in the British army, and 
nelped to harry the land he had aided to defend. He won 
the contempt even of his new associates, and died twenty 
years after in shame and remorse. 

Greene in Command in the South.^Meanwhile, the 
gloom of the Southern situation W'as beginning to lift. 
Gates had been removed from com- 
mand, and replaced by General Na- 
thaniel Greene, — next to Washington 
the ablest of the American generals. 
Under him were three excellent offi- 
cers of Virginian birth, — Daniel Mor- 
gan, the famous riflemen leader; 
William Washington, a cousin of 
the commander-in-chief; and Henry 
Lee, known in the army as " Light- 
Horse Harry,"— father of the famous gen^^al nathamel greene. 

General Lee of the Civil War. One thing was wanted, an 
army. This Greene was obliged to make. He succeeded, 
after earnest efforts, in gathering about two thousand men, 
who were half clothed and half supplied. 

The Battle at Cowpens. — The first conflict took place at 
Cowpens, South Carolina, where, on January 17, 1781, 
Morgan with nine hundred men met a superior force under 
Tarleton, which he nearly annihilated, with scarcely any 
loss on his own side.^ 




' Tarleton made a narrow escape from capture at Cowpens, and was 
wounded by a blow from Colonel Washington's sword. Some time 
after he remarked in a company of South Carolina ladies, " I have 
been told that Colonel Washington is very illiterate, and can scarcely 
write his name." "At least," said one of the ladies, "he can make 
his mark.'' At another time he remarked that he would like to see 
Colonel Washington. "You might have had that pleasure," said the 



228 I'^ROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

Greene's Retieat. — Tarleton fled to Cornwallis, ^vho 
hastily pursued, but failed to overtake Morgan, then rap- 
idly retreating with his prisoners. Greene joined him and 
conducted a skilful retreat to the Dan River, which he 
reached and crossed in advance of the foe.' Cornwallis 
now gave up the pursuit and retired, but soon found Greene 
on his track, harassing him at every step. lie had skilluliy 
drawn the foe far from his base of supplies, and succeeded 
in making his return very uncomfortable.- 

Guilford Court-House. — At Guilford Court-IIouse (now 
Greensborough, North Carolina) Greene felt strong enough 
to venture a battle (March 15). The militia fled, but the 
Continental regulars held their ground. In the end they 
were forced to retreat, but had handled the British so 
roughly that there was no disposition to pursue. It was a 
defeat that had all the effect of a victory, Cornwallis, his 
army badly cut up and in no condition for a further fight, 
was forced to retreat to Wilmington, North Carolina, which 
he reached in very bad plight. 



same, witty lady, " if you had looked behind you at the battle of the 
Cowpens." 

* Morgan crossed the Catawba just as Cornwallis appeared. That 
night it was swollen by rain, detaining the pursuers three days. 
Greene now joined liiui and they retreated to the Yadkin, which also 
became swollen after they crossed. Then a hot march took place, on 
parallel roads, for the fords of the Dan. Greene reached them first. 

■■' On one occasion, during Greene's campaign, he reached a tavern 
at Salisbury, North Carolina, after midnight, wet to the skin with the 
heavy rain. Steele, the landlord, asked him in surprise if he was 
alone. "Yes," he said, " tired, hungry, alone, and penniless." Mrs. 
Steele, who heard him, hastened to set before him a smoking hot meal. 
Then she drew two bags of silver from under hor apron and held them 
out to her guest. " Take these," she said ; " you need Ihem and I can 
do without them." 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 229 

Battle of Hobkirk's Hill. — After pursuing Cornwallis 
for some distance, Greene turned and made a long march 
of two hundred miles into South Carolina, encamping on 
Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden, where Lord Rawdon was in 
command. Here, in junction with Marion, Sumter, and 
Pickens, he was attacked by Rawdon on April 25 and de- 
feated after a sharp struggle. It was another defeat, how- 
ever, that had the effect of a victory, and Rawdon soon 
found it expedient to withdraw from Camden. 

South Carolina Regained. — During the summer Greene 
took post after post, and on September 8 met the enemy at 
Eutaw Springs. Here again he was driven from his posi- 
tion, but during the night the British retreated, hurrying 
toward Charleston.^ So active was Greene, and so efficient 
the aid of Marion, Sumter, Lee, and others, that by the close 
of the .year the British were shut up in Charleston and 
Savannah, and the States of the South were recovered. 

The Campaign in Virginia. — Meanwhile, Cornwallis had 
decided to march to Virginia, where active warfare was then 
in progress, reinforce himself with the troops there, and 
return to recover his lost ground. Arnold was in command 
there, treating his countrymen as though they were his 
bitterest foes. Lafayette had taken the field against him, 
but with a force too weak to hold him in check. Cornwallis 
now took chief command, destroyed all before him, and in 



^ At this battle a soldier of Lee's legion, named Manning, while in 
pursuit of flying foes, found hiniself suddenly in the midst of the 
enemy with not an American near. Without hesitation he seized an 
officer by the collar, wrested from him his sword, and backed off, 
drawing him along as a shield. " 1 am Sir Henry Barry," cried the 
frightened officer, "deputy adjutant-general, captain in the Fifty-sec- 
ond regiment," etc. " That will do," said Manning ; " you aie just the 
man I was looking for." 



230 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

the end, finding Lafayette reinforced, made his way to 
Yorktown, near the mouth of York River, in order that he 
might obtain aid by sea from New York. Here he threw 
up fortifications. 

The French Fleet; Washington's March South. — 
Hitherto the British had been safe at the sea-shore, being 
under protection of the fleet. The French fleet as yet had 
been of little service to the Americans. But at this junc- 
ture a large French fleet arrived from the West Indies, 
under Count de Grasse. 

During the Southern campaign Washington had remained 
at his head-quarters near New York, diligently watching 
Clinton.^ Now a splendid opportunity offered itself to him. 
The French were ready to sail to the Chesapeake. Corn- 
wallis might be caught in a trap. Making, therefore, some 
skilful movements, as if he proposed to attack New York, 
he suddenly broke camp and marched with all speed south- 
ward to the head of Chesapeake Bay, whence his army 
was transported by vessels to Yorktown. 

The Siege of Yorktown. — This movement put Corn- 
wallis in imminent peril. The French fleet closed the 
sea. A strong American and French army closed the land. 
Yorktown was completely surrounded. For a week the 
place was bombarded by the army and the fleet. At the 

^ The winter of 1780-81 proved a severe one for Washington's troops 
at Morristown. They lacked pay and clothing, and on January 1 thir- 
teen hundred of the Pennsylvania line broke into open revolt and 
marched for Philadelphia to demand justice from Congress. Wayne 
faced them with loaded pistols, but they put their bayonets to his 
breast, saying, " We love and respect you, but if you fire you are a 
dead man." A committee from Congress met them at Princeton, and, 
under promise of speedy payment, induced them to return. British 
agents met them also, seeking to bribe them to enter the royal service. 
These they seized and handed over as spies. 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 



231 




Siege of Yokktown. 



end of that time Cornwallis, finding escape impossible and 

receiving no aid from Clinton, surrendered his army of seven 

thousand men. On October 

19, 1781, the captive army 

marched from the v^orks and 

Cornwallis delivered up his 

sword.^ 

'«It is All Over."— The 
struggle for independence was 
over. America was free. 
When Lord North, the Brit- 
ish prime minister, heard the 
news, he cried, wildly, " 
God, it is all over !" Soon 

after he resigned his office, and the peace party came into 
power. 

The War at an End. — The capture of Yorktown prac- 
tically ended the war. Chnton, learning too late that he had 
been overreached by Washington, sent a force of seven 
thousand men by sea to reinforce Cornwallis. They reached 
Cape Charles five days after the surrender. No further 
conflicts took place. In March, 1782, Parliament resolved 
to close hostilities. Savannah was evacuated in July and 
Charleston in December. New York was held for nearly 
a year longer, the negotiations for peace not being completed. 
The treaty of peace, which was negotiated for the United 



' The tidings of the surrender filled the whole land with joy. Mid- 
night had passed when the gladsome news reached Philadelphia, but 
the watchman's stirring cry, " Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is taken !" 
soon filled the streets with joyful crowds. So intense was the feeling 
of delight that it is said the old doorkeeper of Congress died of joy. 
In the afternoon Congress marched in solemn procession to the Lutherati 
church to return thanks to God for the victory. 



232 



FROM COT.ONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



States by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay, 
was finally signed at Paris, September 3, 1783, and on 
November 25 the British sailed away from New York and 
Washington marched in amid the joyful plaudits of the 




Sl'KHKNn?:R OF fORNTTAIXTS. 



people. Soon after he resigned his commission and reached 
home at Mount Vernon in time to spend there a joyful 
Christmas. 

Boundaries of the Nation. — By the treaty it was decided 
that the territory of the new nation should extend from the 
Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River. Great Britain re- 
tained Canada and gave back Florida to Spain. The vast 
region west of the Mississippi was held by Spain. The 
United States had no Gulf coast, Florida extending by a 
strip of land fifty miles wide to join Louisiana, so that on 
all the south and west lay Spanish territory. 



THE BIRTH OF A NATION. 233 

5. THE BIRTH OF A NATION. 

Concentration of the People. — At the opening of the 
Revolution the population of the colonies is supposed to 
have been more than two million five hundred thousand. 
And, fortunately for the Americans, this population was 
concentrated within the narrow space between the moun- 
tains and the sea. Had access to the west been easy, and 
the population been thinly spread over this vast territory, 
independence could not have been gained at that period. As 
it was, the mountains had proved 
an almost impassable barrier. It 
was only a few years before the 
Revolution that Daniel Roone 
made his way into Kentucky, and 
the conquest of that virgin terri- 
tory began. About the same time 
the settlement of Tennessee com- 
menced. Some settlers had made 
their way into the Ohio region. 
But practically the Revolution capture of Daniel boonk. 
was over before the settlement of the great West fairly began. 

Condition of the Country after the "War. — Though the 
country had peace after the surrender at Yorktown, it was 
otherwise in a desperate strait. Its commerce was destroyed, 
its money was worthless, its trade and manufactures were 
neglected. Towns and villages had been ruined and crops 
destroyed. The soldiers earnestly petitioned Congress for 
their pay, but received no redress ; Congress was helpless ; 
the treasury was empty.^ Washington was invited by some 

^ During the war Robert Morris, an Englishman by birth, but a mem- 
ber of the Continental Congress and signer of the Declaration, worked 
as effectively in one way for American independence as did Washington 




234 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

ambitious spirits to make himself king, a proposition which 
he indignantly rejected. Violent measures to obtain redress 
for their wrongs were proposed by some officers, but Wash- 
ington quieted them by wise advice, and on April 19, 1783, 
the eighth anniversary of Lexington, the soldiers were al- 
lowed to go home on furlough. The army was formally 
disbanded in November. 

Soldiers in Mutiny ; Taxes not Paid. — During the fol- 
lowing June a band of drunken soldiers in Philadelphia 
became so violent in their demands for their pay that Con- 
gress in alarm fled from the city. As for the taxes, they 
were not paid. Of those assessed on the States in 1783 
only one-fifth had been paid in 1785. Congress could only 
ask for money. It could not enforce its payment. 

The Articles of Confederation.' — In truth, though Con- 
gress had named the new nation The United States of Amer- 
ica, its union was a very feeble one. " Articles of Confeder- 

and Franklin in other ways. He was a merchant and banker of Phil- 
adelphia, and a strong friend of Washington. Just after the battle of 
Trenton, Washington wrote to him that he must have fifty thousand 
dollars in hard cash, or he would lose a large number of men whose 
terms were out. Morris went around among his friends before day- 
Dreak, raised the sum needed, and sent it to Washington. Without his 
aid in later years the war could not have been carried on. Some money 
had been borrowed in Europe, but Congress depended mainly on paper 
money, which by the summer of 1780 had become almost worthless. 
It took one hundred and fifty dollars in this currency to buy a bushel 
of corn, and two thousand dollars for a suit of clothes. During the 
winter of 1780-81, Morris sent the army several thousand barrels of 
flour, and issued his own notes for one million four hundred thousand 
dollars to aid the army in its final campaigns. Washington could not 
have made his march to Yorktown without the assistance of this earnest 
patriot. It is greatly to the discredit of the United States that this 
noble-hearted citizen, who lost his fortune in his old age, was permitted 
to be sent to prison for debt. * See page 477. 



THE BIRTH OF A NATION, 235 

ation and Perpetual Union" had been adopted in 1777, and 
been finally ratified by the agreement of all the States in 
March, 1781. But the Confederation was not a union. 
Each State claimed to be a sovereign commonwealth, and 
little power was given to the central government. 

The weak point in the Articles of Confederation was that 
they gave Congress no power to lay taxes or to demand sol- 
diers. It could only ask the States for men and money, and 
wait till they were ready to give them. It could make 
treaties, but could not enforce them ; could borrow money, 
but could not repay it ; could make war, but could not en- 
list a soldier. In short, it could recommend, but had to 
depend upon the States to act. 

State Jealousy. — The States proposed to remain inde- 
pendent. They were jealous of each other and of Con- 
gress. There was a heavy war debt, but Ihcy failed to raise 
money for its payment. " We arc," said Washington, " one 
nation to day and thirteen to-morrow." That clearly ex- 
pressed it. There was no actual union. It was doubtful 
whether in the end there would be one strong nation or 
thirteen weak ones. 

Shays's Rebellion. — The trouble in raising money was 
largely due to the poverty of the people, many of whom 
were so loaded with debt as to be unable to pay taxes. 
This was particularly the case in Massachusetts, whose 
farmers had been made poor by the war, and many of 
whom were now hard pressed by their creditors. In the 
end they became desperate. In August, 1786, nearly two 
thousand of them rose in rebellion, led by Daniel Shays, 
who had been a captain in the war. 

They surrounded the court-houses and put a stop to all 
actions for debt ; then they went on to burn and plunder, 
finally attacking the arsenal at Springfield. A strong force 



236 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

of troops was at length called out, and the outbreak sup- 
pressed in February, 1787. 

The Treaty not Carried Out. — The lack of true union 
in the States gave rise to another serious trouble. From 
time to time laws had been passed confiscating the property 
of Tories and hindering British merchants from collecting 
debts in America. It had been agreed in the treaty that 
these laws should be repealed, but the States failed to do 
so. The Tories were treated so badly that more than one 
hundred thousand of them left the country between 1783 
and 1785, and Parliament had to pay many of them for 
their losses. 

The British government, displeased at this bad faith, re- 
fused to deliver several military posts in the North, holding 
on to them till 1796. It also passed laws which injured 
American commerce. The Americans could not retaliate, 
for no two States had the same commercial policy. Some 
of the States, indeed, began to interfere with freedom of 
trade with each other, by laying high tariffs and passing laws 
restrictive of free navigation. 

State Quarrels. — There were also quarrels about boun- 
daries and territory, and between New England and the 
South in reference to a commercial treaty with Spain and 
the navigation of the Mississippi. It began to look very 
much as if the union could not be maintained, and as if 
instead of one strong nation there would be thirteen so 
weak as to be at the mercy of European powers. 

Land Claims. — There was one thing that helped to keep 
the States together. This was the Northwestern Territory, 
which had been conquered for Virginia by George Rogers 
Clark in 1779 and retained in the treaty of peace. Several 
States claimed this territory. Virginia held it through con- 
quest, but Massachusetts and Connecticut, whose charters 



THE BIRTH OF A NATION. 237 

gave them claims running to the Pacific, and New York, 
which professed to be the heir of the Iroquois, demanded 
their share in it. The Southern States also had claims 
extending westward to the Mississippi. 

The Northwestern Territory. — Maryland did a good ser- 
vice for the country by refusing to enter the confederation 
until the States which claimed the Northwestern Territory 
should yield their claims to the United States. New York 
was the first to agree to this, and assurance was given that 
the other States would do the same. They had all done so 
by 1785. Congress had now the control of a great region 
of fertile land which might be divided up and sold for far 
more than enough to pay the public debt. The Southern 
States gradually gave up their claims also, Georgia being 
the last to do so, in 1802. This fixed the boundaries of the 
thirteen original States. Connecticut and Virginia for a time 
held control of a part of their old claims, but eventually sold 
these remaining portions. 

Congress Asks for Powers. — Congress, feeling its weak- 
ness, asked that the Articles of Confederation should be 
amended so as to give it the power to lay a duty on imports. 
Most of the States agreed to this, but unanimous consent 
was required, and that could not be obtained. This failure 
made many patriots despair. Washington, to whom inde- 
pendence was due, felt hopeless about the future. 

A Convention Proposed. — In 1785 a meeting was held 
at Mount Vernon to consider questions of jurisdiction of 
Maryland and Virginia over their intervening waters. The 
general condition of affairs was discussed, and James Madi- 
son, one of the commissioners, soon after induced the 
Virginia legislature to invite a convention of delegates from 
the States, to be held at Annapolis in 1786, its purpose 
being to take steps for the regulation of commerce. 



238 



FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 



Only five States sent delegates to this convention, twelve 
men in all. Under the influence of Alexander Hamilton 
another convention was called, to meet in Philadelphia in 
May, 1787. This had a broader scope. Its purpose was 
to devise measures for an extension of the powers of the 
Federal government. 

The Constitutional Convention. — All the States but 
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Indkpenden'ce Hall. 

May, 1787, there met in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 
the most momentous assembly ever known in the history 
of our country. It embraced the ablest men in the land, 
and some of the ablest statesmen any land has ever pro- 
duced. Washington was chosen its president. Among its 
members were Franklin, Hamilton, Madison, Robert Morris, 
Gouverneur Morris, and others of high reputation. 

Just what this convention was to do was not clearly de- 
fined. Many held that it had power only to revise the 
Articles of Confederation. Hamilton and Madison declared 
that any revision would be useless, and that a new system 



THE BIRTH OF A NATION. 239 

must be devised. This opinion was accepted, and the con- 
vention began its work. 

Behind Closed Doors. — The convention performed its 
labors in secret. Its debates were held behind closed doors. 
For four months it continued at work. State jealousies were 
strong, local demands were ardently pressed, and more than 
once it seemed as if the body must give up the task in 
despair. 

Compromises, — From end to end the Constitution de- 
cided upon was a series of compromises between conflicting 
interests. 

1. The small States were afraid of being overpowered 
by the larger ones. This difficulty was overcome by giving 
them equal representation in the Senate. 

2. In the Continental Congress the people had not been 
represented, only the States. The rights of the people were 
now provided for in the House of Representatives. 

3. The slavery cjuestion was settled by counting every 
five slaves as equal to three white men in fixing the basis 
of representation. 

4. The Continental Congress had no executive head to 
carry out its decrees. One was now provided in the Presi- 
dent. 

5. In the Supreme Court a balance-wheel Avas provided, 
by whose aid the Constitution could always run true. Any 
law which this court decided to be not in accordance with 
the Constitution became of no effect. 

The Action of the States. — The document thus prepared 
was a remarkable one. For more than a century it has 
now served as the Constitution of a great and growing coun- 
try without showing any serious defects. It was signed 
September 17, 1787, and sent to Congress for transmission 
to the States, where it gave rise to serious and sometimes 



240 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

bitter debates. Many feared that it would lead to tyranny. 
Such ardent patriots as Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and 
George Clinton vigorously opposed it. A strong party arose 
against it. The Federalist party earnestly advocated it, be- 
lieving that a strong central government was necessary if the 
Union was to be preserved. 

The Constitution Ratified. — One by one the States 
adopted it. By June 21, 1788, it had been ratified by nine 
States, the number fixed upon to make it the law of the 
land. Rhode Island, the last State to ratify the Constitu- 
tion, did not do so till May 29, 1790. Its adoption was 
celebrated by joyful processions, in which the Union was 
indicated by the " Ship of State," and other significant em- 
blems were shown. With its adoption the second Conti- 
nental Congress, which had served as the governing body 
of the country for thirteen years, ceased to exist. 

The New Government. — The old government had been 
weak ; the new one was strong. Each State had still the 
power to make laws for its own internal affairs, but all 
powers of external government were given to Congress and 
the President. They had the power to form an army and 
navy, to make and enforce treaties, to declare war and con- 
clude peace. They could coin money, lay taxes, regulate 
commerce, and make laws for the nation. No State was 
permitted to enact laws which would infringe the rights of 
other States or of the United States. 

The new government consisted of three bodies : one to 
make the laws, one to execute them, and one to decide if 
they agreed with the Constitution. 

Congress, the law-making body, consisted of the Senate, 
elected by the State legislatures and representing the States, 
and the House of Representatives, elected by and repre- 
senting the people. 



THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 241 

The executive branch consisted of a President and Vice- 
President, with officials as heads of departments. 

The President had the power to veto or annul any act of 
Congress of which he did not approve, but it could be passed 
over his veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses. It then 
became his duty to execute it or carry out its provisions. 

The third body of the government, the Supreme Court, 
consisted of a number of eminent judges, whose duty was 
to examine all laws whose validity was called in question, 
and decide whether or not they agreed with the Constitution. 
Tf not, they ceased to be laws. Every law, either of Congress 
or of the States, must be in accordance with the require- 
ments of the Constitution of the United States. 

6. THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 

Population. — The political history of the United States 
is but part of its full history. It is proposed here to say 
something about its social and economical history at the 
period which our record has now reached. At the begin- 
ning of the Revolution there were probably more than two 
and a half millions of people in the country. By 1790 these 
had increased to nearly four millions.^ Virginia, Pennsyl- 
vania, North Carolina, and Massachusetts were the most 
populous States, while the leading cities were Philadelphia, 
New York, and Boston. ' 

This population was largely confined to the coast region, 
the interior being very thinly settled. Most of it was still a 
forest- covered wilderness. The towns were small and far 

^ The first census of the United States was taken in 1790. The pop- 
ulation was found to be three million nine hundred and twenty-nine 
thousand two hundred and fourteen. Of these nearly seven hundred 
thousand were slaves. ' See page 502. 




242 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

apart. They were more numerous in New England than 
in the Middle States, and in the Southern States there 
were few beyond the size of villages. Excepting Balti- 
more, Charleston, Savannah, and some other coast towns, 
the South was almost wholly a country of farms and plan- 
tations. 

Settlement of the "West. — The settlement of the great 
West was making good progress. Daniel Boone and his 
fellow-pioneers had fairly conquered Kentucky, and its set- 
tlements were growing. Tennessee was also being rapidly 

occupied by immigrants. 
These two territories had 
in 1790 about one hun- 
dred thousand people. 
Others were making their 
way into the Northwest- 
Mississippi flat-boat. ern Territory, many of 

them floating in large 
flat-boats down the Ohio and fighting with the Indians as 
they went. The foundations of later cities were being laid. 
Colonel Clark started Louisville in 1778, during his expedi- 
tion against Kaskaskia. Cincinnati was founded in 1788. 
The same year no less than ten thousand emigrants went 
to Marietta and its vicinity. These pioneers lived in the 
mo^t primitive manner, building rough log houses, grinding 
their corn between two stones, and obtaining meat by aid 
of the rifle. Everywhere they worked Avith their guns close 
at hand. The West once invaded, it was rapidly settled, a 
fever of migration to these new and rich lands being set 
up. 

The Emigrants of the North. — The adventurous spirits 
of the Northern States did not find a navigable river to aid 
them in their westward progress. But the Iroquois Indians, 



THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 243 

who had long stood in their way, had been largely annihi- 
lated by Sullivan's expedition, and no longer presented a 
serious obstacle. The pioneers of New York and New Eng- 
land pushed slowly west with emigrant wagons, making 
roads as they went. They would clear off the trees and 
cultivate the land for a year or two, and then, as the settle- 
ment began to thicken, would set out for a new home in the 
wilderness, leaving their clearings for those who followed. 
It was like a great army slowly marching forward, sending 
its scouts in advance, and pushing back the Indians as it 
went. Before its front the forest fell. By its main body 
the wilderness was converted into a land of farms. In its 
rear towns and cities sprang up. 

The Products of the Land. — Most of the people were 
engaged in agriculture. The soil was rich and gave large 
crops ; and comfortable farm-houses, with large, well-fdled 
barns, were widely to be seen, while great flocks of cattle 
and sheep grazed in the fields. On the small New England 
farms sheep and corn were the leading food products. The 
Middle States were famous for wheat. In the South great 
plantations replaced the small farms of the North, and large 
crops of tobacco, rice, sugar, etc., were produced. Cotton 
had not yet become a leading product, but did so in a few 
years afterward, when the cotton-gin was invented. North 
Carolina yielded much tar, pitch, and turpentine. In addi- 
tion the forests yielded a supply of lumber that seemed 
inexhaustible. 

Manufactures. — Farmers in those days had none of the 
excellent machines which are in use to-day, and had to work 
very hard in their fields. Their work at home was as hard, 
for they had to make for themselves nearly everything they 
needed. While they were tilling the ground their wives 
and- daughters were spinning and weaving in the house. 




A CoLONiAi, Chair. 



244 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

In the winter the men were kept busy making their own 
tools and articles of furniture, even hammering out the 
pails they needed and rude iron plates for ploughshares. 

Commerce. — New England was largely engaged in com- 
merce and the fisheries, Boston, New York, and Philadel- 
phia were busy centres of trade. This 
commerce grew more active after the 
war, and the wealth of the country 
soon increased. Tobacco and other 
products brought high prices, the ships 
were kept busy, and people began to 
dress b«tter, buy superior furniture, 
and live in more comfort than of old. 
But the merchants and shippers of 
America found the competition of Eng- 
land very severe, while the few manu- 
factures that had been started during the war could scarcely 
keep at work in competition with the cheap products of 
British workshops. Instead of soldiers, England now sent 
goods, and they proved as liard to fight against by the small 
American manufacturing industries. 

Fuel. — At this period wood was the principal fuel of the 
country, though soft coal was burned to some extent near 
the mines. The anthracite or hard coal of Pennsylvania had 
been known since 1766, but it was long before people 
learned how to burn it in their houses, and it did not come 
into general use until after 1830. 

Character of the Cities. — There were some handsome 
houses in the cities, but the mass of the dwellings were not 
what would to-day be called comfortable. In New York 
trees were planted before the houses, and there were rail- 
ings on the roofs so that people could sit there on warm 
summer evenings. Broadway was lighted at night by oil- 



THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 245 

lamps, and was thought a splendid avenue, but it soon ran 
into the open country. Philadelphia was the handsomest 
and most important city, its broad, straight streets contrast- 
ing favorably with the narrow and crooked thoroughfares 
of Boston and New York.^ 

Little "Wealth or Poverty. — There were no men of 
great riches. Very few in the country had an income of 
ten thousand dollars a year. There was little poverty and 
little riches, most of the people being nearly equal in 
wealth. They were simple in their manners, and did not, 
as a rule, live expensively. 

Customs of the Rich. — But the rich people in the cities 
lived much better than the farmers and made much more 
display. They dressed, indeed, far more showily than the 
same class do to-day. The gentlemen wore white satin 
vests and white silk stockings, with velvet or broadcloth 
coats. The ladies wore rich silks and satins, and had their 
hair dressed with powder and pomatum and raised like a 
tower above their heads. Snuff-taking was common among 
gentlemen, and to offer the snuff-box was an ordinary act 
of politeness. 

Social Entertainments. — Fine balls were given at which 
there was much formality. There were also musical con- 
certs ; but the theatre had as yet made little progress, it 
being considered immoral. At President Washington's re- 
ceptions the pomp and show rivalled that of the courts of 

^ In 1790 Philadelphia had about forty-two thousand population. 

New York thirty-three thousand, and Boston eighteen thousand. 
Charleston and Baltimore were the largest Southern cities, Savannah 
being still quite small. These cities resembled country towns. Bos- 
ton, for instance, had unpaved streets and no flagged sidewalks. The 
better houses were of brick, witli little flower-gardens or lawns adorned 
with shubbery in front 



246 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 

Europe. This ((vised when Jefferson became Presidoiil. 
He dressed plainly and did away with all ceremony. 

In the Houses. — In the houses tlierc w^erc still broad 
open fireplaces where great logs of wood were burned, and 
whose heat nearly all made its way up the chimney. The 
Franklin stove, a sort of iron hearth, w^as in use in many 
houses, and was a considerable improvement. The closed 
wood stove did not come into use until later days. Tallow 
candles were employed to light the rooms, wiiile homespun 
was still much worn. 

Amusements. — Amusements were few and simple, and 
books and newspapers scarce. In truth, there was little 
time for reading or amusement, the hours occupied in 
labor being much longer than now- and the work done 
more exhausting in character. In those days men did not 
attend machines, but did everything wdth their own hands. 
There were some labor-saving devices, and the steam- 
engine had been invented, but the era of machine produc- 
tion had only fairly begun.^ 

' The cotton-gin, used to clean the cotton fibre of its see(3s, was 
inventeci by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, in 1793. It proved of 
immense advantage to the production of cotton in the South. No 
other invention has had so great an influence on the history of this 
country. Oliver Evans, of Delaware, invented the grain elevator and 
the steam dredge. Jacob Perkins, of Massachusetts, invented the first 
practical nail-machine. In 1790, John Fitch, of Connecticut, built and 
ran a steamboat on the Delaware River. It failed, however, to attract 
public attention, and it was not till 1807 that a satisfactory steamboat, 
the Clermont, was produced by Robert Fulton, a native of Pennsyl- 
v^ania. 



PART VI. 
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC 



I. "CdasbinQton's H&mlnistration. 

What the Constitution Did. — The Constitution of 1787 
made the United States of America. The country had been 
given that name in the Declaration of Independence and 
the Articles of Confederation ; but, as we have seen, the 
States were far from being united ; so weak was their bond 
of connection that it was in danger oj breaking and leaving 
them as thirteen disunited States. The Constitution first 
made this country a nation, a federal republic of a strength 
and soundness of union surpassing that of any previous 
government of the people. The history of this country as 
a single and well-defined community begins, therefore, 
with the adoption of the Constitution by the States, and the 
yielding to the central government of such of their indi- 
vidual powers as were needed to make a strong and enduring 
nation. 

First Presidential Election. — When the question arose 
as to who should be the first President of the United States 
under the new Constitution, both parties, Federalists and 
Anti-Federalists alike, fixed upon George Washington as 
the man to whom the liberties of the country were due and 
who was most worthy of the honor. Presidential elections 
were held in ten of the States, but there was no opposition 

247 




248 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

io Washington, who was chosen iinanhiiously. John Adams 
was elected Vice-President/ 

The Inauguration. — As soon as Washington received 
news of his election he set out from his quiet home at 
Mount Vernon, which he left with 
much regret, for New York, then the 
seat of Congress. His journey was 
like a triumphal procession. Along 
the whole way the people crowded 
to the roadside, waiting for hours to 
see him pass. " Guns were fired, tri- 
um})hal arches were erected, and 
flowers were strewn in the roads 
over which his carriage was to pass." 
GEORGE Washington. The new nation began its life on 

March 4, 1789,^ on which day the 
Constitution went into operation, but the new Congress had 
not assembled at that date, and the inauguration of Wash- 
ington did not take place till April 30. He took the oath 
of office on the balcony of a building in front of Federal 
Hall (in which Congress met), in the presence of a great 
and enthusiastic multitude. When he had finished, the 
ringing of bells and firing of cannon testified to the public 

' At that time the electors voted for two persons, the one receiving 
the highest number of votes being declared President, the next highest 
Vice-President. Washington received sixty-nine votes, Adams thirty- 
four. 

^ Congress had appointed the first Wednesday in January, 1780, as 
the day to choose Presidential electors, the first Wednesday in Febru- 
ary as the day on which these electors should meet to choose a Presi- 
dent, and the first Wednesday in March as the day on which the 
President should take his seat. This happened to be the 4ih of March 
in that year, and the 4th has been inauguration day ever since. 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 249 

joy, and a ringing shout went up of, " Long live George 
Washington, President of the United States !" 

Organization of the Government. — Washington ap- 
pointed Thomas Jefferson Secretary of Foreign Affairs 
(now called Secretary of State), Alexander Hamilton Sec- 
retary of the Treasury, Henry Knox Secretary of War, and 
Edmund Randolph Attorney-General. These, with later 
Secretaries, became afterward the President's advisers, 
acquiring the title of the Cabinet. John Jay was appointed 
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and associate judges 
were chosen. Among the first acts of the new Congress 
was one selecting Philadelphia as the national capital for 
the ten years 1790-1800. At the latter date the capital 
was to be removed to a new city, to be built on the Poto- 
mac and named Washington in honor of the President.^ 

The Constitution Amended. — It quickly appeared that 
the Constitution had failed to cover the whole field of 
public questions, and the First Congress found it necessary 
to add a number of amendments. Twelve of these were 
proposed in 1791, most of them intended to guard the 
rights of the people and of the States. Ten of these were 
adopted. Two others were subsequently adopted, one in 
1798 and one in 1804. No further amendments were 
required until after the Civil War. 

New States. — During Washington's administration the 
first admissions of new States to the Union were made, Ver- 

^ The site of the Federal capital was not selected without dispute. 
The Northern members of Congress wanted it as far north as the Dela- 
ware River. The Southern members wished to have it as far south as 
tlie Potomac. The debate was sharp and protracted. It was settled 
at length by a compromise. The South got the capital, and the North 
obtained an agreement that Congress should assume and pay all the 
State debts. 



250 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

mont being admitted in 1791, Kentucky in 1792, and Ten- 
nessee in 1796. Vermont had been originally claimed by 
both New York and New Hampshire, whose claims were 
vigorously disputed by the " Green Mountain Boys." At 
times it looked as if they would go to war with New York. 
That State gave up its claim in 1789.^ 

Captain Gray's Discovery. — In the first year of Washing- 
ton's administration. Captain Gray, in a Boston ship, the 
Columbia, started out with a cargo of Yankee notions, and 
made a circumnavigation of the globe, carrying the Amer- 
ican flag for the first time around the world. He returned 
to Boston in 1790,, and in the following year sailed again to 
the Pacific. Here he discovered in the Oregon region a 
great river, which he named the Columbia from his ship. 
He sailed up it for twenty miles, and left an indication of 
his visit by burying some pine-tree shillings at the foot of 
a tree. 

Difficulties of the Government. — It was by no easy path 
that the new government was to make its way. Difficulties 
and discouragements confronted it. England was unfriendly ; 
Spain was hostile, closing the Mississippi against American 
commerce. Algerine pirates were capturing American mer- 
chant vessels in the Mediterranean. The Indians of the 
Northwest were in arms against the pioneer settlers. A 



* The territory of Vermont was once known as the " New Hampshire 
Grants," grants of land there having been made by the governor of New 
Hampshire. Ethan Alien was one of the principal leaders in the war- 
like opposition to New York. Kentucky was at first a county of Vir- 
ginia, but was finally given up by that State. Tennessee was similarly 
a part of North Carolina, then a separate State named Franklin, again 
a part of North Carolina, and finally was ceded to the general govern- 
ment. It was afterward united with Kentucky as a Territory, and after 
the admission of Kentucky remained a separate Territory till 1796. 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 



251 



more immediate trouble to contend with was the condition 
of the finances. The treasury was empty, no method of 
obtaining a revenue had been devised, and the country had 
no credit. The Continental currency had disappeared from 
circulation. 

Kamilton's Methods of Finance. — In this dilemma, Alex- 
ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, came to the 
rescue. Congress, at his suggestion, assumed the debts of 
the States. It must have means to pay them. To do so 
some plan of taxation must be de- 
vised. A direct tax is always an un- 
popular one, and sometimes its col- 
lection is resisted, so that financiers 
have usually preferred the system of 
indirect taxation, in which the people 
pay without directly perceiving it. 
Hamilton, therefore, had a mod^erate 
tariff placed on imported goods. 

Our commerce then was large, and 
a very low tariff soon yielded suffi- 
cient funds for the government needs. But the Secretary 
had another purpose in view. He hoped to encourage 
American manufactures by raising the price of foreign 
goods.^ In addition to this a United States Bank was 




Alexander Hamilton. 



^ These plans, devised by Hamilton, gave rise to Daniel Webster's 
eloquent tribute : " He smote the rock of the national resources, and 
abundant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse 
of public credit, and it sprung upon its feet." This eulogy v^as fully 
deserved. By aid of the funds produced the government was enabled 
to pay its foreign debt and to redeem the discredited Continental cur- 
rency at par, while meeting its running expenses. As a consequence, 
the credit of the United States was fully restored. See page 495. 

17 



252 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

founded in 1791/ and in 1792 a mint for the coinage of 
American money was established. 

The Whiskey War. — The slirewd Secretary thought, 
however, that there was one product on which an internal 
tax might be laid. This product was whiskey, one of the 
few products which to-day pay such a tax. But he soon 
found that the people were unwilling to pay taxes that 
passed directly from their pockets into the hands of the 
government. In the region of the Alleghany River, in 
Western Pennsylvania, an active business in the manufac- 
ture of whiskey had sprung up, and the distillers and people 
there bitterly resented the visits of the tax collector. They 
broke out in 1794 into open insurrection, maltreated the 
government officials, and showed such a violent determina- 
tion that an army of fifteen thousand troops was called out 
to subdue them, under the command of General Henry 
Lee. This show of force settled the question, and the rebels 
consented to pay their taxes without a fight. This was the 
first employment of government troops in quelling internal 
disturbances. 

The Indian War. — The rapid settlement of the North- 
western Territory was not amicably viewed by the Indians, 
the original owners of the country. Their hostile disposi- 
tion was believed to be encouraged by British agents and 
traders from the military posts still held by the British in 
the lake region. In 1790, General Harmar was sent into the 

^ The first bank in America had been founded in 1781, at Philadel- 
phia, under the name of the Bank of Nortli America, l)y Rol)ert Morris, 
then financial agent of the government. This bank is still in existence. 
The Bank of New York and the Bank of Massachusetts were afterward 
established. In 1791 the whole banking capital of the country was two 
million dollars. The Bank of the United States began operations in 
1794 with a capital of ten million dollars. 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 253 

Indian country to punish the savages for their hostile acts, 
but was defeated by them in two battles. In the follow- 
ing year General St. Clair suffered a surprise and a severe 
defeat. The government now felt it necessary to take de- 
cisive action, if it wished to retain that country. General 
Wayne, the hero of Stony Point, was sent there with a 
strong force, and a desperate battle was fought in 1794 on 
the Maumee, in which the savages were utterly routed. 
Wayne laid waste their country for fifty miles, and forced 
upon them a treaty in which they gave up a large tract of 
land. 

■Washington's Second Term. — In the autumn of 1792 
the second election for President took place. There were 
now two well-defined political parties, the Federal, headed 
by Hamilton, and the Republican (later the Democratic- 
Republican), headed by Jefferson, and opposing the policy 
of the administration. Despite this opposition Washington 
and Adams were re-elected by large majorities. 

Foreig-n Affairs. — Meanwhile, Europe was in a ferment, 
and the troubles abroad made themselves felt beyond the 
ocean. The beginning of the new government of the United 
States was nearly, contemporary with that of a new govern- 
ment in France, by which the monarchy was overthrown 
and a republic established. War in consequence had arisen 
and spread throughout Europe. It was partly fought by 
England and France upon the seas, and the commerce of 
America began to suffer. 

A Meddlesome French Minister. — In 1793 the new gov- 
ernment of France sent a man named Genet as its minister 
to this country. Finding here a party that strongly sym- 
pathized with the French republicans, he was insolent 
enough to defy the government, trying to arouse the people 
against it. He attempted also to have privateers fitted out 



254 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

in American ports, hoping tlius to cause war between Eng- 
land and the United States. Washington sternly repressed 
this too ardent envoy, who acted as if he owned the country, 
and the French government thought it wise to recall him. 

The Algerine Pirates. — For several years the piratical 
state of Algiers, which had long held the mercantile nations 
of Europe under tribute, had been molesting American 
commerce, which had now found its way into the Mediter- 
ranean. Between 1785 and 1793 fifteen vessels were cap- 
tured and their officers and crews made slaves. In 1795 a 
treaty was concluded with Algiers in which the United States 
agreed to ransom the captives then alive and to pay an 
annual tribute to the Dey, the ruler of that country. In 
this it was but doing what the nations of Europe had long 
done. 

Trouble with England. — Difficulties with England had 
also arisen. In the treaty of 1783 the question of remuner- 
ating Tories for their confiscated property and of paying 
old debts to British merchants was discussed. Congress 
said that it could not compel, but would recommend the 
States to pay these debts. They were not paid, and harsh 
treatment forced thousands of Tories to leave the country. 
England considered this bad faith, and in return refused to 
deliver up Detroit and other posts on the lakes. 

A more annoying difficulty soon arose. British men-of- 
war began to seize American merchant ships dealing with 
French ports. They went still further, carrying off sea- 
men from American vessels on the pretence that they were 
British subjects. 

John Jay's Treaty. — To put an end to these sources of 
ill feeling. Chief Justice John Jay was sent to England to 
negotiate a treaty between the two nations. He succeeded 
in obtaining one (called the treaty of 1795) which settled all 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 



255 



the questions in dispute except that of the right of " search 
and impressment.'" When its terms became known great 
excitement prevailed. Jay was burned in effigy, the British 
minister was insulted, and Hamilton Avas stoned at a public 
meeting. But Washington favored the adoption of the 
treaty, and his influence carried it through Congress in spite 
of the violent opposition there shown. The treaty Avas far 
from satisfactory, but it averted a possible war. 

A Treaty with Spain. — A treaty was also made with 
Spain, which fixed the boundaries of Florida and secured 
to Americans the free navigation of the Mississippi River, 
a measure of great importance to the West. New Orleans 
was to be made a port of deposit for the Western States. 




H il^ I 




iSIouNT Vernon. 



"Washington's Retirement. — As the end of Washington's 
second term drew near he was strongly solicited to stand 
for a third term. He persistently refused, and John Adams 
was elected to succeed him, with Jefferson for Vice-President. 
Washington now retired from public life, after having de- 
voted himself for many years to the service of his country. 



256 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

Under his administration llie United States had attained a 
prosperous financial and industrial condition and won the 
respect of foreign nations. 

He took leave of the people in a farewell address which 
has become one of the famous state papers of the United 
States, it being filled with the most patriotic and statesman- 
like sentiments. His period of private life Avas not long. 
In less than three years this noble man, the " Father of his 
Country," died. 

2. 3obn B^ams's HDministration. 

Condition of the Country. — John Adams' was inaugu- 
rated President at Philadelphia on 
March 4, 1797. He came into office at 
a time of promise and growing pros- 
perity. The national debt had been 
funded and much of it paid. The 
revenue was abundant for the coun- 
try's needs. The Indians were quiet, 
the threatened w^ar with England had 
been avoided, the commercial and 
juHN ADAMS. agricultural interests of the country 

w^ere rapidly developing, and some progress in manufactur 

ing had been made. 

^ John Adams was born in Massachusetts in 1735. Hs was a mem- 
ber of both Colonial Congresses, and earnestly advocated the adoption 
of the Declaration of Independence. He was sent as ambassador to 
France in 1777, and spent most of the next ten years abroad, being one 
of the commissioners who negotiated the treaty of peace of 1783. He 
was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. After serving as 
Vice-President and President, he died on the fiftieth anniversary of 
American independence, July 4, 1826, his last words being, "Thomas 
Jefferson still survives." By a remarkable coincidence Jefferson died 
on the same day. 




JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 257 

Hostile Relations -with France. — In one direction only 
were there threats of trouble. The Jay treaty had estab- 
lished peaceful relations with Great Britain, but it greatly 
displeased France, whose government thought that America 
should repay her aid in the Revolution by siding with her 
against Great Britain. The election of Adams to the Presi- 
dency instead of Jefferson, the friend of France, added to 
the anger of the revolutionary government, and the Ameri- 
can minister was ordered to leave that country/ 

Hq-w the Envoys -were Treated. — This was almost 
equivalent to a declaration of war. France, in fact, began 
actual war by ordering her cruisers to capture American 
vessels, of which, it is estimated, as many as a thousand 
were taken. President Adams, feeling that the country 
was in no condition for war, sent three envoys to France, 
with instructions to negotiate a treaty, if possible. They 
were treated with indignity, and were privately advised that 
they would not be received officially unless they agreed to 
pay the French government a quarter of a million dollars. 
To this suggestion of bribery Charles Pinckney, one of the 
envoys, indignantly repKed, " MilUons for defence, but not 
one cent for tribute," a sentiment which became highly 
popular in the States. Soon after two of the envoys were 
ordered to leave the country. Elbridge Gerry remained, 
but his stay proved useless. 

^ The sympathy with the French revolutionists was wide-spread in 
America. Numerous clubs were formed in imitation of the republican 
clubs of France. French fashions of dress and speech were imitated. 
It was then that men began to wear trousers, in place of the knee- 
breeches and long stockings of earlier times. Jefferson, who had 
lately returned from France, was in full sympathy with the revolution- 
ists. The Federal party favored them at first, but changed its opinion 
when their violent excesses began. 



258 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

"Warlike Sentiment. — In April, 1798, the whole corre- 
spondence with the agents of Prince Talleyrand, the French 
minister, was published. Their letters were signed X. 
Y. Z., and the papers became known as the " X, Y. Z. de- 
spatches." On reading them the whole country burst into 
warlike fury. " Millions for defence ; not one cent for 
tribute," became the war-cry of the people. Acts of Con- 
gress were passed to increase the army and navy, Wash- 
ington reluctantly consenting to accept the command of the 
former. The naval vessels were ordered to capture French 
armed ships, and several were taken. 

Ocean Battles. — In February, 1799, a naval battle took 
place between the new 38-gun frigate Constellation and the 
French 38-gun frigate L'Insurgente. The French vessel 
was captured. This was followed by another obstinate 
fight, in which Captain Truxton, in the Constellation, cap- 
tured the La Vengeance, of fifty-four guns. The French, 
astonished and dismayed by these unlooked-for losses, now 
grew anxious for peace. The Federal party, of which 
Adams was the head, desired war, but he desired peace, 
and succeeded in having a satisfactory treaty made with 
Napoleon Bonaparte, now First Consul of France. 

The Alien and Sedition Laws. — The troubles with 
France caused Congress to pass two laws which proved 
very unpopular, and did much to arouse opposition to the 
Adams administration. They were due to two causes, — 
the hostile activity of French emissaries in this country, and 
the virulent abuse of the President, and even of Washing- 
ton, by the papers of the opposite party. These were 
known as the Alien and Sedition Laws. 

By the Alien Law the President was given power to 
banish from the country any foreigner whose action he 
considered dangerous, and to imprison him if he returned. 



JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 259 

The Sedition Law was aimed at the hostile newspapers, 
and gave the right to punish by fine and imprisonment any 
one who should publish anything false or malicious against 
Congress or the President. , 

Effect of these Laws. — These laws, passed in 1798, 
greatly injured the Federal party. The people declared 
them unconstitutional, as interfering with personal liberty 
and freedom of speech. The legislatures of Virginia and 
Kentucky passed resolutions against them, Kentucky de- 
claring that a State has the right to nullify any act of Con- 
gress which violates the Constitution.^ The Alien Law was 
never enforced ; the Sedition Law was, on several occa- 
sions. 

Death of "Washington. — In December, 1799, Washing- 
ton, while attending to some duties on his estate, became 
wet in a storm, and in consequence took a severe cold. 
Fever followed, and on the night of December 14 he died. 
Thus passed away, in his sixty-eighth year, the noblest of 
the Americans, justly entitled " first in war, first in peace, 
and first in the hearts of his countrymen." The whole 
country united in paying honor to his memory, and his 
tomb at Mount Vernon has become a hallowed shrine to 
patriotic Americans. 

The New Election. — During the whole of the Adams ad- 
ministration party feeling ran high. The Republican party 
increased in strength, and the Federal party lost many of 
its adherents. In the election of November, 1800, Adams 
and Pinckney were the Federal, Jefferson and Aaron Burr 

^ To nullify a law means to refuse to allow its enforcement within 
the State. Such a principle would soon break up the Union. The 
United States has never acknowledged this right, and put down by 
force tlie effort at nullification made by South Carolina some thirty 
years afterward. 



260 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPURLIC. 

the Republican candidates. The rule of making the candi- 
date who received the highest electoral vote President, and 
the second on the list Vice-President, now caused trouble, 
since Jefferson anjj Burr each received seventy-three votes. 
Adams received sixty-five. 

In consequence it became necessary for the House of 
Representatives to decide which of the two Republican can- 
didates should be President. Jefferson was the slrongcst 
in the House, but some Federalists intrigued against him, 
the result being that ho was elected only a fortnight before 
the end of Adams's term. 

The Twelfth Amendment. — It was evident from this that 
the Constitution was faulty, since an occasion might arise in 
which the country would be left without a President. To 
avoid such a danger a new amendment to the Constitution, 
the twelfth, was prepared and passed in 1804. Since then 
it has been specially declared which can- 
didates run for President and which for 
Vice-President. 

Chief Justice Marshall. — On January 

l31, 1801, the eminent jurist, John Marshall, 

was appointed chief justice of the United 

:States, a position which he held with the 

highest honor for thirty-four years. Five 

days after the death of Washington he had 

CH.KK irsTicK John ^ ^ j^^ Cougress a series of resolutions, 

prepared by General Henry Lee, in which the deceased hero 

is truthfully described as " first in war, first in peace, and 

first in the hearts of his countrymen." 




JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 261 

3. Jefferson's B&mtnistration. 

The New President. — Thomas Jefferson was a democrat, 
a man of the people, and in sympathy with the " repubUean 
simphcity" which he had observed in 
France. In this respect he differed essen- 
tially from Washington and Adams, who, 
while opposed to monarchy, felt it due, 
to their position to keep up a degree of I 
pomp and ceremony. He took the oath' 
of office without any ceremonious dis- 
play, and was ready to meet all visitors 
on the level of perfect equality.' 

His inauguration took place in the thomas Jefferson. 
new capitol, which had been erected in the Federal city of 
Washington, which at that time had only a few hundred 
inhabitants, though it was laid out on a magnificent scale. 

Jefferson's practice differed from that of Washington and 
Adams in another particular. It had been their custom, 
when communicating with Congress, to appear in person, 
and address the two Houses from the floor. Jefferson 




^ Thomas Jefferson was a native of Virginia, born April 2, 1743. He 
studied law, became a member of the House of Burgesses in 1768, and 
of the Continental Congress. He was almost wholly the author of the 
Declaration of Independence, the most famous of American state papers. 
He served as governor of Virginia during the Revolution, was appointed 
minister to France in 1785, became Secretary of State under Washing- 
ton, and later was elected Vice-President under Adams. He died on 
the same day with Adams, July 4, 1826. He was an accomplished 
scholar, deeply interested in science and philosophy, and fond of music 
and out-door sports. The University of Virginia was founded by him. 
Though many feared a serious reversal of the work of his predecessors 
under his administration, none such took place, and the dread of revo- 
lutionary changes soon passed away. 



262 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPURLIC. 

wrote his communications and seiil lliciii in to hv iciul. 
This method has been followed since, all Presidents ad- 
dressing Congress in written messages. 

War with Tripoli. — An important assertion of the dignity 
of the United States was made in the Mediterranean, where 
for centuries the Barbary states had followed the practice 
of piracy and preyed on the commerce of other states. The 
maritime nations of Europe had rescued their ships and 
sailors from these raids by paying annual tributes, and Uie 
United States had consented to do the same. 

In 1801 the Bashaw of Tripoli demanded a larger trib- 
ute, threatening war against the United States unless the 
present demanded was received within 
six months. This threat was more 
than President Jefferson was disposed 
to endure. A million dollars had 
already been paid for the rescue of 
American sailors held in the cruel 
bondage of Tripolilan slavery. He 
now instead sent a fleet of war vessels 
to the Mediterranean and bombarded 
the city of Tripoli. The war continued 

CoMMODOKE Decatur. " 

until 1805, at the end of which time 
the Bashaw was glad to make a treaty of peace. ^ The 



• In the war with Tripoli a memorable event took place. One of the 
American fleet, the Philadelphia, ran aground in the harbor and was 
abandoned to the Tripolitans, who began to tit her up for a man-of-war. 
Stephen Decatur, then a lieutenant, volunteered to destroy this prize 
of the enemy, and made his way into the harbor in a small captured 
vessel. Reaching the Philadelphia without suspicion being aroused, 
the concealed crew suddenly appeared and leaped on board, driving the 
Tripolitans overboard and setting the ship on fire. They then sailed 
uut under fire from the batteries of the port without losing a man. 




JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 263 

other Barbary states soon made similar treaties, and from 
that time on the United States ceased to pay them piratical 
blackmail. 

Ohio Admitted. — Ohio, the first State formed out of the 
Northwestern Territory, was admitted to the Union in 1803. 
Its growth had been very great. Its first settlement was 
made at Marietta in 1788, and in 1800 the population had 
reached forty-five thousand three hundred and sixty-five. 
It was the fourth new State to be admitted, 

Louisiana. — Of the events occurring in Jefferson's ad- 
ministration the most important was the purchase of Lou- 
isiana. By her possession of this territory Spain controlled 
the navigation of the Mississippi River, and was able to shut 
the Western States out from access to the Gulf of Mexico. 
Such a condition of affairs was not likely to be long endured 
by the rapidly increasing population of the West. Unless 
this great water outlet could be enjoyed in peace the ques- 
tion of its possession was certain in the end to lead to war. 
France had given Louisiana to Spain in 1763. By a secret 
treaty in 1801 Spain gave it back to France, Napoleon 
having the design of planting a colony there. 

Monroe Sent to France. — Jefferson learned of this oper- 
ation in 1802, and at the same time was reminded of the 
difficulty likely to arise, from the fact that the Spanish com- 
mandant, still in control, issued an order in October of that 
year closing the port of New Orleans to American vessels. 
It became highly important to endeavor to buy the island 
of New Orleans, which commanded the navigation of two 
branches of the river, and in 1803 James Monroe was sent 
to France, as a special envoy, for this purpose. Two mil- 
lion five hundred thousand dollars was the sum which he 
was instructed to offer. 

The Louisiana Purchase. — Napoleon was found to be 



264 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

quite ready to dispose of his new possession. He was hard 
pressed by war, needed money badly, and feared that the 
British fleet would rob him of this distant province and 
leave him no territory to sell. He therefore went beyond 
the demand and offered the whole vast domain of Louisiana 
to the United States for the sum of fifteen million dollars.' 

This was an offer and a price far beyond what the Presi- 
dent had thought of. He had only asked for the island of 
New Orleans, but he was quick to perceive the vast advantage 
such an acquisition would prove to the country, and made 
haste to accept the great bargain offered him. Thus by a 
stroke of the pen he more than doubled the area of the 
United States, winning the mighty region between the Mis- 
sissippi and the Rocky Mountains, with some shadow of a 
claim to the country beyond that range. 

The Country Unknown. — Little was known of the great 
country which Jefferson had bought. Its area, its inhab- 
itants, its products and possibilities were alike unknown. 
And west of the mountains lay another wide region, named 
Oregon, in all respects a mystery. lis coast had been sev- 
eral times explored. Captain Gray had sailed twenty miles 
up its great river. No nation had as yet laid any special 
claim to it. No one dreamed that within a century that 
whole country would be covered by the spreading United 
States. 

The Expedition of Lewis and Clark. — With a natural 
desire to learn something about the far-spreading region of 
the West, President Jefferson in 1804 sent out an expedition 



' Napoleon dprnanrled an immediate answer, and his offer was ac- 
cepted by Monroe and the American minister, who were not wiUing to 
run any risk of losing so great a bargain. They then sent Jefferson 
word of what they had done. 



" JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 265 

to explore it, led by Captains Meriwether Lewis and William 
Clark. Starting from St. Louis (then a village of log cabins), 
they made their way up the Missouri to its source. Then 
crossing the mountains, they found the head-waters of 
anotljer stream. It led to a broad river, down which they 
boated till the Pacific Ocean was reached. It was the Co- 
lumbia, which Captain Gray had discovered and named in 
1792. The explorers returned in 1806. 

They had been gone nearly two and a half years, had 
travelled over eight thousand miles, and had a remarkably 
interesting story to tell of the country, its people, wealth 
and wonders, and of the exciting adventures of their journey. 
Their report put an end to all question of the value of 
Jefferson's purchase. 

Jefferson again Elected. — Jefferson's first administra- 
tion was a highly prosperous one. The war between France 
and Great Britain had for the time ceased, and American 
commerce was little troubled. The President grew so 
popular that in the election of 1804 he was re-elected by 
almost the entire electoral vote. George Clinton was elected 
Vice-President. Aaron Burr, the former Vice-President^ 
had ruined his reputation by disgraceful political intrigues, 
and had ended by killing his political opponent, Alexander 
Hamilton,^ in a duel. 



' Alexander Hamilton was born on the island of Nevis, West Indies, 
in 1757. He came to New York in 1772, and displayed great ability as 
a speaker and writer when but eighteen. He became a captain of 
artillery in 177G, and afterward aide-de-camp and secretary to Washing- 
ton. After serving in several public capacities he became a member 
of the Constitutional Convention, and was the principal author of the 
brilliant political essays which were afterward published under the 
title of " The Federalist." He resigned his secretaryship in 1795 and 
returned to the practice of the law. 



266 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

Burr Tried for Treason. — This action aroused against 
him the deepest indignation. His political career was at an 
end, and he now formed a plot to conquer Texas, then part 
of Mexico, proposing to found an independent nation, with 
New Orleans for its capital. He organized an expedition for 
this purpose, but his scheme was suspected and the expedi- 
tion broken up, he being arrested on a charge of treason. 
He was tried in 1807 and acquitted, as his guilt could not be 
proved. But he had destroyed his influence, and afterward 
died in New York a poor and obscure old man. 

The Steamboat Invented. — In the year of Burr's trial, 
1807, an important invention was brought to pubhc notice. 
Robert Fulton, who had long been experimenting on the 
appHcation -of steam-power to boats, launched a steamboat, 
the Clermont, on the Hudson. This boat was rude and 
clumsy in its machinery, but in thirty-two hours it made its 
way against wind and stream to Albany, greatly to the public 
surprise. 

In a few years this invention made a vast change in modes 
of travel. Placed upon the Western rivers, the steamboat 
aided greatly in the rapid settlement of the West. It proved 
also useful for coast travel, and in 1819 the Savannah, the 
first ocean steamship, made its way by sails and steam 
across the Atlantic from Savannah, Georgia.^ 



^ John Fitch's steamboat, which ran on the Delaware in 1790, had 
failed to attract attention, and the inventor, in despair, committed sui- 
cide. Fulton's success arose from his use of side paddle-wheels. In 
1808, John Stevens put another paddle-wheel steamboat on the Dela- 
ware. The first steamboat on the Mississippi, the Orleans, with a stern 
wheel, made the trip from Pittsburg to New Orleans in fourteen days. 
In regard to the Savannah, the story is told that a member of the Brit- 
ish Parliament, ridiculing the idea, remarked that he would eat the 
first steamship that crossed the Atlantic. About the same time the 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 267 

Public Improvements, — In his inaugural address in 
1805, President Jefferson recommended that the surplus 
revenue should be used for pubUc improvements. He 
thought the Constitution would need to be amended for 
this purpose, but Congress did not think so, and a bill was 
passed in 1806 voting money for a national road to the 
West, starting from Cumberland, Maryland. This was the 
beginning of national works for the development of the 
country. 

The Slave-Trade Abolished. — In 1807 a bill was passed 
prohibiting the foreign slave-trade after January 1, 1808. 
This was in accordance with a provision in the Constitution 
(Art. I., Sec. 9). 

Commercial Troubles. — The commercial prosperity of 
America in Jefferson's first term ceased in his second. Na- 
poleon Bonaparte became Emperor of France in 1804, and 
the war with Great Britain was resumed and raged more 
fiercely than ever. The United States, being a neutral 
power, was able to trade with all the fighting nations of 
Europe. This was stopped by proclamations from England 
and France in 1806 and 1807, which rendered a vessel 
trading with almost any of the ports of Europe Hable to 
seizure and confiscation. England seized those sailing to 
ports under French influence. France did the same with 
those sailing to British ports. Between the two no com- 
mercial vessel was safe. 

Impressment of Seamen. — The commercial difficulty 
was not the worst. Serious as it proved, it had some 
excuse as a necessity of war. But what particularly 



Savannah steamed into the harbor of Liverpool. In 1825 the steam- 
ship Enterprise made its way from America to India by way of the 
Cape of Good Hope. 

18 



268 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

aroused American anger was the stopping of our vessels 
and impressment of our seamen by British ships of war. 
This was done under the claim that they were British sub- 
jects. This matter had been left unsettled in Jay's treaty, 
and now became a serious evil. France did not offend in 
this way, since no American could well be mistaken for a 
French citizen. Therefore the wrath of the people was 
principally directed against England, 

The Chesapeake Affair. — In 1807 an event took place 
which nearly led to war. The British frigate Leopard, 
cruising on our coast, hailed the American frigate Chesa- 
peake, and demanded permission to search her crew. The 
captain of the Chesapeake refused, whereupon the Leopard 
fired several broadsides into her, killing and wounding 
more than twenty of her men. The captain of the Chesa- 
peake, who had not dreamed of such an outrage, and who 
had not a gun in readiness to return the fire, was obliged 
to haul down his flag. Officers from the Leopard then 
came on board and carried off four men from the crew, 
claiming that they were deserters from the British navy. 

The resentment against this indignity was extreme. The 
United States would probably have declared war at once 
had not England been prompt to disavow the act and 
agreed to make reparation for it. 

The Embargo Act. — The President was well aware that 
the country was in no condition for war, but could not 
well let such an insult to the American flag pass without 
some action. He issued a proclamation forbidding British 
cruisers to enter American ports, and called Congress to- 
gether in extra session to decide what should be done. 
Congress (not with great wisdom, as it proved) passed an 
Embargo Act (1807). This forbade American vessels to 
set sail for any foreign port, and foreign vessels to load 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 269 

In American ports. Only the coasting trade was per- 
mitted. 

Effects of the Embargo. — It was believed that this would 
seriously injure England and France. It did them some 
harm, but it injured this country far more. It virtually 
destroyed American commerce. Our ships were left to 
rot at their wharves, our seamen sought employment 
abroad, and the trade of the world was carried in British 
ships. 

New England suffered the most, since it was the chief 
centre of American commerce. Congress refused to repeal 
the act, and many of the former merchants turned their 
attention to manufacture, which now rapidly developed. 
The Embargo Act was felt less immediately in the South, 
though the cutting off of a foreign market for the produce 
of the farm and plantation in time became everywhere a 
serious evil. 

The Non-Intercourse Act. — In 1809, just before the 
close of Jefferson's administration, it began to appear that 
if the Embargo Act was continued in force New England 
might secede from the Union. It was therefore repealed, 
and a Non-Intercourse Act passed in its place. This de- 
clared that no American ships should trade with England 
and France, but it left commerce with all other nations 
free. 

The Election of 1808. — Jefferson was requested by the 
legislatures of nearly all the Republican States to become a 
candidate for a third term. He refused, as Washington had 
done before him. James Madison was thereupon made the 
party candidate, and was elected by one hundred and 
twenty-nine votes, against forty-seven for Charles C. Pinck- 
ney, the Federal party's candidate. George Clinton, late 
Vice-President, was re-elected to that office. 



270 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

4. /IDa&ison's H&mimstration. 

Madison's Policy. — James Madison wore, when inaugu- 
rated, " a full suit of woollen cloth, the wool being from 
sheep raised in the United States and 
the cloth from American factories." 
He proposed, he said, to show what 
Americans can do when their work 
is protected by the tariff against 
foreign competition. Madison, like 
Washington and Jefferson before him, 
remained President for eight years, 
but he found no opportunity to carry 

James Madison. OUt the tariff policy thuS prOpOSCd.' 

The Foreign Situation. — Personally Madison was a man 
of great learning and fine intellectual "powers. But he was 
essentially a man of peace, one ill calculated to manage or 
control a war, and who felt, like the three Presidents before 
him, that peace was the best policy for the United States. 

Unfortunately, peace could not be maintained \vith honor. 
The greatest struggle of centuries was going on in Europe, 
and its effects were severely felt in America. Napoleon 
Bonaparte had conquered much of the continent and was 
at war with the remainder. Great Britain was his bitterest 




' James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751. It was he who sug- 
gested the conference at Annapolis which led to the Constitutional Con- 
vention, and in the latter he did such excellent work that he was named 
the " Father of the Constitution." His political views were the same 
as those of Jefferson, under whom he became Secretary of State. In 
character he was kindly and courteous, simple in manner, and modest 
in disposition. His memory was remarkable, and he was able to make 
the fullest use of his abundant stores of learning. " When he had fin- 
ished nothing remained to be said." He died in 1836. 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 271 

enemy. The ocean Avas traversed in all directions by the 
French and British ships of war, and American commerce 
suffered more and more severely as time went on. The 
Embargo Act had done more harm than good. The Non- 
Intercourse Act had failed to remedy the trouble. The 
outrages continued. It looked almost as if France and 
England were determined to subject this country to disgrace 
or drive it into war. 

Commerce still Fettered. — In 1810 Congress promised 
to repeal the Non-Intercourse Act if France and England 
would agree to respect American commerce. A double 
deception followed. The British minister at Washington 
agreed that our commerce should not be molested if we 
would promise to trade with England and her allies, but 
not with France. An agreement was made. More than a 
thousand vessels, loaded with American produce, crossed 
the seas. All the people were full of hope, thinking that 
the fetters of commerce had been cut. They were doomed 
to disappointment. The English government declared that 
the promise was a mistake, that the minister had acted 
without authority, and refused to accept the agreement. 
The trade ended as soon as it began. 

Napoleon's Double-Dealing'. — The mistake of the Brit- 
ish minister was followed by an act of base duphcity on the 
part of Napoleon. He had already seized and sold hun- 
dreds of American ships under his decrees of paper block- 
ade of European ports. He now agreed to withdraw his 
hostility to American commerce if trade with his ports and 
those of, his allies were restored. Congress took him at 
his word and repealed the Non-Intercourse Act so far as 
France was concerned. Many merchant ships made their 
way to French ports. They were well treated, and others 
followed. Napoleon had spread his net wide to catch these 



272 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

innocent dupes. Suddenly, under an order which had been 
kept secret, all these vessels were seized, and the imperial 
robber stole at one grasp ten million dollars from American 
citizens. , 

Hostile Relations with England. — War was almost un- 
avoidable, yet it was a question against which nation it should 
be declared. Napoleon's act of piracy was abundant provo- 
cation, yet England managed to sting this country still more 
deeply. The impressment of American seamen by British 
men-of-war continued. In all, during the period in ques- 
tion, more than six thousand men were thus seized. Be- 
tween 1803 and 1812 more than nine hundred American 
vessels were captured by British cruisers on various pre- 
texts. From every part of the country went up the war- 
cry, " Free-trade and sailors' rights." ' 

Indian Hostilities. — In 1811 an Indian war broke out. 
Tecumseh, a famous Shawanese chief, tried to play the part 
of Pontiac, and combine the tribes against the whites. Gen- 
eral William Henry Harrison was sent against him. A 
treacherous night attack was made upon Harrison's camp 
near the Tippecanoe River, but the soldiers were prepared, 
and routed the savages with great slaughter. It was be- 
lieved in the West that British emissaries had incited the 
Indians to this attack, and a strong warlike sentiment arose 
in that quarter. 

A Naval Event. — In the same year a naval event added 
to the war spirit. British war vessels had been sent into 
American waters to seize our merchant ships as prizes. 
One of them, the sloop-of-war Little Belt, when hailed by 
the American frigate President, replied by a cannon-shot. 



' By this was meant freedom to trade with any port and the right 
of American citizens not to be impressed into foreign service. 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 273 

The President answered with a broadside. After the Little 
Belt had lost thirty-two men in killed and wounded a civil 
answer was returned. 

The Declaration of "War. — As will be seen from the 
facts stated, this country had ample cause to declare war 
against both England and France. But hostility to the 
former was greater than to the latter. Americans looked 
upon England as their ancient enemy and on France as their 
ancient friend. And the behavior of England had been more 
galling to national pride. Henry Clay, then Speaker of 
the House, John C. Calhoun, and other ardent and able 
young men, strongly advocated war with Great Britain. 
President Madison hesitated, but was brought over to their 
views, and on June 18, 1812, Congress declared war against 
that country.^ 

The "War Spirit. — Two days before this the British gov- 
ernment revoked its " Orders in Council," under which the 
ships of America had been seized. But even if this had 
been known it would have been too late, for the war spirit 
ran too high to be controlled. The Federalists opposed the 
war, but they were weak in numbers. In the election of 
1812 they obtained only ninety electoral votes against one 
hundred and twenty-eight for Madison. Hostilities were 
also opposed in New England, where injury to commerce 
and fisheries was feared. But the mass of the people were 
strong for war. 

The Country Unprepared. — Yet the country was very 

^ The reasons given for the war were : the impressment of American 
seamen ; violation of neutral rights on the American coast by British 
cruisers ; the British " Orders in Council" (by which American vessels 
were forbidden to enter any ports in Europe except those of Great 
Britain and her ally, Sweden) ; and the inciting of the Indians to war 
against the United States. 



274 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

poorly prepared for hostilities. Its army was small, its 
troops were undisciplined, its generals without experience 
or ability. The navy comprised only twelve vessels of any 
strength, against which the British could oppose a thousand, 
more than a hundred of them heavily armed and powerful 
ships. War with no better preparation than this seemed 
madness, yet the provocation had been great, and the people 
were bent on obtaining redress for their wrongs. 

5. THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 

The Seat of "War. — The war that followed the declara- 
tion was largely confined to two quarters, the ocean and 
the Canadian border of the United States. The land con- 
flict was mostly in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. Canada 
was like an outpost of Great Britain in America. There the 
foe could most easily be reached, and thither the American 
armies marched. 

The Surrender of Detroit. — Even before war was de- 
clared. General William Hull, an officer who had given 
excellent service in the Revolution, marched to Detroit, 
making as he went a road two hundred miles long through 
forests and swamps. Finding before him a strong force of 
British and Indians, he took refuge in the fortress at Detroit, 
where he was soon besieged by the British General Brock. 

A disgraceful event now took place. Without firing a 
gun or waiting. for a gun to be fired by the enemy, Hull 
hoisted the signal of surrender — a white table-cloth — and 
gave up the fort and town, and with them the control of the 
Territory of Michigan, to the enemy. 

Hull Sentenced to Death. — This act filled the whole 
country with indignation. Hull was declared to be another 
Benedict Arnold ; he was tried by court-martial, convicted 
of cowardice, and sentenced to be shot. The President, 



THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 275 

however, pardoned him, on account of his services during 
the Revolution. It is now thought that Hull was made to 
suffer for the faults of others. 

Harrison's Campaign. — Later in the year Queenstown 
was attacked without success, and on January 22, 1813, 
General Harrison, who was marching against Detroit, had 
his advance-guard defeated by a force of British and In- 
dians, under General Proctor, at the river Raisin. This 
engagement ended in a massacre, Proctor leaving the field 
and permitting the Indians to butcher all the American 
wounded. 

Canada Invaded. — Later in 1813 General Dearborn in- 
vaded Canada, and General Pike made an attack on York 
(now Toronto), the Canadian capital. Pike was killed by 
the explosion of the enemy's magazine, but the town was 
taken and the Parliament House burned. An expedition 
was also projected against Montreal, but this ended in 
failure. 

Causes of Failure. — In truth, the American government 
had declared war in blind haste and without any rational 
measures of preparation. The regular army was too small 
to be of much value. The militia were undisciplined, 
poorly equipped, ill provided. The generals were incom- 
petent. The invasion of Canada, which had seemed a 
feasible project, had proved a disastrous failure, the Terri- 
tory of Michigan being lost and Ohio in danger of being 
overrun by the foe. 

The Constitution and Guerriere. — Yet while unfortu- 
nate on land, the Americans had been surprisingly success- 
ful at sea. The British navy, proud of its success against 
the French, found itself suddenly humiliated by the hand- 
ful of American ships of war. A series of unpleasant 
surprises began on August 13, 1812, when the frigate Essex 



276 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

captured the British sloop-of-war Alert in an eight min- 
utes' fight and without losing a man. 

Six days afterward a more equal and significant fight 
took place. The frigate Constitution, of forty-four guns, 
commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, met the 38-gun British 
frigate Guerriere in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The fight 
that followed lasted half an hour. Its results were sur- 
prising. At the end of that time the Guerriere had lost 
one hundred men ; her masts and rigging were all gone ; 
her hull was so cut up that the water was pouring in. The 
Constitution had lost but fourteen men and was still in 
fighting trim. The Guerriere was forced to surrender, and 
her crew had barely been taken off when she plunged to 
the bottom of the bay. 

Other Naval Victories. — This unlooked-for success was 
followed by others. On October 13 the American sloop 
Wasp captured the British sloop Frolic. On the 25th the 
frigate United States captured the Macedonian. This ship 
was left almost in the condition of the Guerriere, while the 
United States lost but twelve men and was but little the 
worse for the encounter. On the 29th of December the 
Constitution, now under Captain Bainbridge, won another 
striking victory. Meeting the British frigate Java off the 
coast of Brazil, a two hours' contest followed. At the end 
of that time the Java was a total wreck, and had lost two 
hundred and thirty men. In February, 1813, the sloop 
Hornet met the British ship Peacock, and handled her so 
severely that she sank before her crew could be taken off. 

Causes of the American Success. — In six months the 
Americans had taken more British ships than the French 
had done in twenty years, and had not lost one. This was 
due to several causes. The American vessels carried more 
men than the British, and these were mainly the hardy 



THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 



277 



fishermen of New England, men who had made the waves 
their homes. The ships were better built, the crews better 
disciplined, the gunners bettor marksmen. Heavier guns 
were carried, and every shot told. There was no firing at 
random as in the British ships. The result of this superi- 
ority in men and equipment was the remarkable series of 
victories we have detailed. 

"Don't Give Up the Ship."— On June 1, 1813, the Brit- 
ish navy gained its first success. The Shannon captured 




Capture of the Cyane and Levant by the Constitution. 



the Chesapeake near Boston harbor. Captain Lawrence of 
the Chesapeake was mortally wounded, and as he was 
carried below cried out, " Don't give up the ship !" But 
his vessel had entered the combat when in no proper 
fighting trim and was forced to yield. 

Other Ocean Battles. — The Essex, under Captain Poi> 



278 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

ter, cruised for a whole year in the Pacific, taking numbers 
of British merchantmen. In March, 1814, she was attacked 
by two British frigates in the harbor of Valparaiso and 
forced to surrender. This and the capture of the Chesa- 
peake were the only British naval successes during the 
war. The last fight took place in February, 1815, after the 
war had ended. The glorious old Constitution, which had 
already won such fame, was attacked by two British ves- 
sels, the frigate Cyane and the sloop Levant, off the coast 
of Madeira, and after a forty minutes' action captured them 
both. 

While the small American fleet was doing this remarkable 
service, the seas were sw^pt by privateers, which during 
the war captured more than a thousand prizes. Many 
American merchant vessels were taken, but in this coinpe-- 
tition the British w^ere largely the losers. 

Perry on Lake Erie. — The naval battles of the war were 
not confined to the ocean. The control of Lake Erie be- 
came an important matter, and both sides prepared to 
contest it. In the summer of 1813 the British were mas- 
ters of the lake, having on it a fleet of six ships with sixty- 
three guns. Captain Oliver Perry, a young officer who had 
never seen a naval battle, was sent to build a fleet and 
fight the foe. He did the first with extraordinary energy, 
cutting down forest-trees which in a few weeks were con- 
verted into ships. With these and some other vessels, 
nine in all, armed with fifty-four guns, he sailed in search 
of the British fleet. His flag-ship was named the Lawrence, 
and the flag at the mast-head bore Captain Lawrence's 
memorable words, "Don't give up the ship." 

The fleets met on September 10. A fierce conflict en- 
sued. The Lawrence fought two of the heaviest British 
vessels till it was badly cut up, while of its crew only eight 



THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 



279 



effective men were left. Then the indomitable Perry sprang 
into a boat and was rowed through a hot British fire to the 

Niagara. With this new 
flag-ship he made a splendid 
charge through the enemy's 
line, firing right and left into 
their shattered vessels, and 
in fifteen minutes more the 
victory was won. 

" We have met the enemy 
and they are ours," was 
Perry's famous despatch. It 
roused the country like an 
electric charge. Enthusiasm every- 
where ran high. 

The Battle of the Thames. — 
Perry's victory saved the North- 
west. On receiving the news of 
it, General Harrison crossed into 
Canada, found the enemy in retreat, and completely defeated 
them on the river Thames, Proctor, the British com- 
mander, fled ; his men surrendered ; and Tecumseh, who 
led the Indian auxiliaries, was killed. Detroit was soon 
after recovered, and the war ended in the West. 

Canada again Invaded. — In 1814 another attempt to 
invade Canada was made, by way of the Niagara River, 
By this time the army had been reorganized, the troops 
disciplined, and more able commanders chosen. General 
Winfield Scott won a brilliant victory at Chippewa on July 
5. On July 25 another victory was won at Lundy's Lane.' 
The invasion, however, yielded no useful results. 

* A battery, situated on a height, was the key to the British position. 
'•Can you take that battery?" asked General Brown, calling Colonel 




Battle-Fields on the Niagara. 



280 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

McDonough on Lake Champlain. — Later in the season, 
the British attempted an invasion of New York, following 
the often-tried line of Lake Champlain. It proved a disas- 
trous failure, though General Prevost had under him twelve 
thousand of Wellington's veteran soldiers. The British fleet 
on the lake attacked the American squadron under McDon- 
ough (September 11), and was so badly beaten as to be 
nearly destroyed. Prevost, learning of this defeat, fled ill 
such haste as to leave his sick and wounded and most of 
his stores behind. 

The War on the Coast. — With this important American 
victory the war in the North ended, but meanwhile a cam- 
paign of plunder was being made on the Atlantic coast. 
Napoleon had been beaten and banished to Elba, and 
Europe once more was at peace. This left England free 
for the war in America, and a large fleet was sent across 
the sea, enough to blockade the whole coast from Maine 
to Florida.* Thousands of veterans from the European 
war were also sent. 

It was proposed to invade the country on the north, the 
east, and the south. Prevost's invasion from the north, as 
we have seen, signally failed. On the east troops were 
landed and a number of towns were plundered. Stoning- 
ton, Connecticut, was bombarded. Part of the coast of 
Maine was seized and held till the end of the war. 

Washington Captured. — In July, 1814, a strong British 
fleet, conveying an army four thousand five hundred 

Miller to his side. " I'll try, sir," was the modest answer. Miller won 
the battery and held the position against three desperate charges of the 
foe. His answer has become famous. 

^ Commerce was so completely ruined that the lamps in the light- 
houses were no longer lighted. They had become of use only to the 
enemy. 



THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 



281 



strong, appeared in Chesapeake Bay. The troops were 
landed near the mouth of the Patuxent River and marched 
toward the national capital. Their coming had been a sur- 
prise, and the hasty steps taken to resist them proved use- 
less. About six thousand men were gathered, nearly all un- 




trained militia. They met 
the foe at Bladensburg, 
near Washington, but 
were soon put to flight, 
and the enemy marched 
on to the capital (August 
24). 

Here shameful and in- 
glorious work was done, from which the British nation 
gained no renown. The Capitol, the President's house, and 
most of the public buildings were burned and all the records 



Northern Battle-Fields of the War of 
1812-15. 



282 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

of the government destroyed. This vandalism had been 
ordered by the British government, on the plea that the 
Parliament House at York, Canada, had been burned by the 
Americans. But this was the act of a general, not of a 
government. 

Baltimore Attacked. — On leaving Washington, Admiral 
Cockburn sailed to Baltimore, Here the fleet attacked Fort 
McHenry, while the army marched by land against the 
city. But there was no surprise here as at Washington ; 
Baltimore Was prepared, and the assault ended in failure.^ 

The Creek "War. — The war in the South was begun by the 
Creek Indians, who, incited by Tecumseh, in 1813 attacked 
and took Fort Mimms, massacring the garrison and all the 
women and children in the fort. The people of that region 
gathered in revengeful haste, and under General Andrew 
Jackson routed the Indians in several severe engagements. 
The last battle took place at Tohopeka, or Great Horseshoe, 
where the Indians had fortified themselves, and where they 
were completely defeated. About six hundred warriors 
were slain, and the rest were glad to make peace. 

The British at New Orleans. — The final effort of Great 
Britain was made against New Orleans. General Paken- 
ham, an able soldier, landed with a force of twelve thousand 
veterans of the Napoleonic wars near that city in December, 
1814. It was defended by about half as many men, under 
General Jackson, the hero of the Creek War. In great haste 

"' Francis S. Key, who had been sent to the British fleet to negotiate 
an exchange of prisoners, was detained, and spent there the night of 
the attack on the fort. When morning came he looked eagerly for the 
national flag, and saw that it still waved over the walls of the fort. In 
the inspiration of the occasion he wrote the " Star-Spangled Banner," 
a song which immediately became popular, and which still continues 
a leading national ode. 



THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 



283 




Jackson threw up intrenchments, his lines extending from 
the river to the swamps. Cotton bales were used to some 
extent in his works, while 
the British used hogsheads 
of sugar for the same pur- 
pose. But as bombard- 
ment soon set the cotton 
in flames, Jackson replaced 
the bales with a bank of 
earth and river mud. 

Pakenham's Assault. — 
On January 8, 1815, 
Pakenham tried an 
assault. It proved a 
fatal error. Jackson's 
men were largely 
sharp-shooters, and 
the British fell in 
multitudes before their unerring fire. In twenty-five min- 
utes the assailing army hastily withdrew, leaving two thou- 
sand six hundred killed and wounded on the field. Pak- 
enham was among the dead. Of Jackson's men only eight 
were killed and thirteen wounded. Rarely has so great a 
victory been won with so little loss. It brought to a sudden 
end the invasion of Louisiana. The entire British plan of 
campaign had failed. 

Peace Declared. — As events proved, the slaughter at New 
Orleans was useless. A treaty of peace had already been 
signed. British and American commissioners had been 
debating on the question of peace since August, and a treaty 
was signed on Christmas eve, 1814, at Ghent. But those 
were not days of ocean cables and land telegraphs, and the 
war went on for several weeks after peace had been made. 

19 



New Orleans and the Creek War. 



284 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 

The treaty left affairs much as they were before the war. 
Great Britain did not give up the right of impressment. But 
no fear was felt that she ^vould attempt to seize American 
seamen again. 

War with Algiers. — Peace with Great Britain did not 
quite end the era of war. The Dey of Algiers had taken 
the opportunity to capture some American vessels. Com- 
modore Decatur was sent in 1815 to punish him for his acts 
of piracy. The capture of two of his ships sufficed. He 
was glad to sign a treaty to give up all captives and cease all 
future attacks on American commerce. Tunis and Tripoli 
did the same, and all trouble with the Barbary States was 
brought to an end. 

The Hartford Convention. — In 1814 a convention of 
delegates from the New England States, representing the 
element of the people opposed to the war, met in secret 
convention at Hartford, Connecticut, and passed resolutions 
recommending seven amendments to the Constitution, It 
was widely believed that these delegates were plotting 
secession, and they not only brought political ruin to them- 
selves but to their political following. They were all Fed- 
eralists, and their action w^as the death-blow of the Federal 
party. Just what took place in the convention, however, 
was never w^ell known. 

A National Bank. — The war left the finances of the 
country in a serious state. Eighty million dollars had been 
spent, and the national debt had increased to one hundred 
and twenty-seven million dollars. Trade was nearly ruined, 
and only paper money was in use. The old National Bank 
of the United States had been closed in 1811, its charter 
having expired. A new one was chartered in 1816 for 
twenty years, with the hope that it would aid in over- 
coming the financial depression. The capital was to be 



THE SECOxND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 285 

thirty-five million dollars, to which the government contrib- 
uted largely. The bank did good service in aiding to restore 
the lost prosperity of the country. 

New States. — During the Madison administration two 
new States were admitted to the Union, Louisiana in 1812, 
and Indiana in 1816. 

Election of Monroe. — In 1812, Madison had been re- 
elected, with Elbridge Gerry for Vice-President. In the 
Presidential contest of 1816 the Democratic-Republican 
party nominated James Monroe, with Daniel D. Tompkins 
for Vice-President. The Federalists nominated Rufus King 
for President, but made no nomination for Vice-President. 
The party was virtually dead. Monroe received an over- 
whelming majority. From that time forward the Federal 
party ceased to exist. 



PART VII. 
THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 



I. nnonroe's B&mini9tratlon. 

A One-Party Era. — Monroe's two administrations were 
the only ones in the history of the country in which party 
spirit did not prevail. The decline of the 
Federal party had left the Democratic- 
Republican party supreme. In his first 
election he received one hundred and 
I eighty-seven out of two hundred and 
I twenty-one electoral votes. In his sec- 
ond election, in 1820, no other candidate 
was nominated. His election would have 
been unanimous had not one elector 
voted against him, on the ground that he 

James Monroe. , .,,. ,, ■ t-» ■ ^ ■ i i 

was not willing that any President but 
Washington should have a unanimous vote.' 
The President's Journey. — Like Washington, Monroe 

' James Monroe, like all the Presidents before him except Adams, 
was a native of Virginia. He was born there in 1758, entered the Rev- 
olutionary army at the age of eighteen, and served with distinction in 
the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. He after- 
ward studied law, and served at various periods as minister to France, 
Spain, and England. As a special envoy to France in 1803 he secured 
the purchase of Louisiana. He was not possessed of brilliant powers, 
but was a plain, honest man, whose leading aim was the good of his 
«ountry. He was the third President to die on July 4 (1831). 
286 




MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 287 

made a journey through some of the States in the first year 
of his term. It was a period of slow travel, and it took him 
three months to traverse the Middle and Eastern States. 
He hoped by this journey to heal party feeling. New Eng- 
land had opposed the war, and had suffered from it. The 
bitter feeling was not yet appeased, but Monroe's appearance 
among the people as a veteran of the Revolution, dressed 
in the military costume of the days that " tried men's souls," 
roused general enthusiasm. Revolutionary soldiers gath- 
ered to welcome him. The war-worn battle-flags of '76 
were displayed. He spoke of the worth of the Union, of the 
need of sympathy between North and South, and men of all 
political views applauded his words. For the time party 
lines seemed to vanish. Every one declared that the coun- 
try had entered on an " Era of Good Feeling." 

In 1819, Monroe made a second tour, this time in the 
South. The effect was as good as before, and for the only 
time in its history the people of this country appeared to be 
united in sentiment and opinion. 

A Commercial Invasion. — The close of the war with 
Great Britain had produced one marked variation in the 
condition of American industries. The attacks on commerce 
before the war and the prevention of importation during 
that period had led to a considerable development of man- 
ufactures in this country, particularly in the production of 
cotton and woollen goods. New England, whose carrying 
trade was ruined, had employed her capital largely in this 
direction. 

But the close of the war made a radical change. British 
merchant vessels succeeded British war ships, and a mer- 
cantile invasion of the country was made, the products of 
England's looms being brought here in vast quantities, and 
sold at prices with which the small and poorly equipped 



288 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

American factories could not compete. There was good 
reason to believe that the manufacturers of England were 
selling their goods below cost so as to break down Ameri- 
can competition and force this country to depend on them 
for a supply. 

The Tariff Question. — Petitions poured in upon Congress 
asking for a protective tariff/ and in 1816 such a tariff was 
enacted, increasing the duties on cotton and woollen goods. 
It failed to produce the benefit expected. Large importa- 
tions of foreign goods were still made. In 1824 a new tariff 
law was passed, further increasing the duties on cotton and 
woollen goods and adding to the duties on various other 
articles. 

The tariff question now first became an important political 
consideration.^ The tariff* of 1816 was supported by many 



^ A tariff is a tax laid on foreign goods imported into any country. 
The money thus obtained is used for the expenses of the government. 
A tariff " for revenue only" is one in which only these expenses are con- 
sidered. A " protective tariff " is one intended to check importation, 
and thus to encourage home manufactures. Free trade is a system in 
which no duties are charged, and money for government expenses is 
obtained by taxes on home products and incomes. The advocates of 
free trade and revenue tariff claim that it is the true policy for each 
country to produce only that for which it is best fitted by nature, and 
that protection benefits the few at the expense of the many. The ad- 
vocates of protective tariff claim that protection is necessary for the 
proper development of manufacturing industries. Opposite views on 
these subjects have long been held, and have formed the main point 
of difference between the two leading political parties. 

^ The first tariff bill passed in this country was signed by Washing- 
ton on July 4, 1789. Hamilton advocated a tariff as a revenue measure, 
but also considered the importance of protection. Protection was a 
feature in subsequent tariffs, but revenue continued the principal con- 
sideration until 1816. In several later tariff bills protection was the 
leading purpose. 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 289 

Southerners and opposed by many of the merchants of New 
England, on the plea that it would injure their commercial 
interests. By 1824 a change had taken place ; manufactur- 
ing had largely developed in New England, and protection 
was demanded, while the agriculturists of the South advo- 
cated free trade as best suited to their interests. 

Trouble with the Florida Indians. — Spain held Florida, 
but did not hold it strongly. The Indians of that country 
made many raids into Georgia and Alabama. They were 
aided by runaway slaves and other lawless characters. 
Complaints were made, but Spain could not or would not 
keep order. As a result a condition of border warfare 
arose. 

Jackson in Florida. — General Jackson was sent in 1818 
to suppress this trouble. He was given permission to pur- 
sue enemies across the border, but he was not to attack 
any Spanish post without orders from Washington. But 
Jackson was not the man to wait for orders. He raised a 
.'brce of four thousand men, many of them Creek Indians, 
pursued the Seminole Indians into Florida, drove them 
from point to point, and captured without orders several 
Spanish forts and towns — among them Pensacola — on the 
plea that their commanders were aiding the enemy. Two 
British traders, who were accused of supplying the Indians 
with arms and ammunition, were arrested, tried, and exe- 
cuted, though the evidence against them was doubtful. 

The Purchase of Florida. — Thus the headstrong Jackson 
managed in a short time to bring the country into hostile 
relations with both Spain and Great Britain. Spain strongly 
resented the invasion. But it soon became evident that 
Florida was likely to prove a troublesome possession, and 
in 1819 the Spanish government agreed to sell that prov- 
ince to the United States for the sum of five million dollars. 



290 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

By the treaty Spain gave up all claim to the country lying 
west of the Louisiana purchase and north of the 42d parallel 
of latitude. From this region have been made the States of 
Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. 

The Monroe Doctrine. — Spain was having trouble with 
her other colonies. After 1810 one after another of them 
broke into rebellion, which she was unable to suppress, 
and it looked as if some of the other nations of Europe 
might come to her aid. If they did, they might seize upon 
some of these colonies themselves. 

This was a state of affairs by no means agreeable to the 
United States. For a number of years the question was 
debated as to whether this country should recognize and aid 
the revolutionists. In 1823, President Monroe took a de- 
cided step. In a message to Congress he declared that the 
United States considered the American continents to be no 
longer open to colonization from Europe, and that this coun- 
try would resent any attempt of a European power to in- 
terfere with an independent American government.' 

Its Effect. — Monroe's words carried weight. Europe was 
coming to recognize the strength of the United States, and 
had no desire to go to war with this country. There was no 
further thought of interference with the Central and South 
American states. In the next year Russia, in a treaty, 

^ Monroe declared, " That the American continents, by the free and 
independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are 
henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by 
any European powers." He further declared that any attempt by a 
European power to oppress or control an independent American nation 
would be regarded as " the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition 
toward the United States." This, known as the " Monroe Doctrine," 
has at various times since attracted much attention, and became very 
prominent in 1895-96 in consequence of what were claimed to be 
English aggressions upon the territory of Venezuela. 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 291 

abandoned all claim to the Pacific coast region south of the 
latitude of 54° 40'. 

New States Admitted. — Several new States were ad- 
mitted during the Monroe administration. These included 
two formed out of the territory which Georgia and South 
Carolina had ceded to the United States, — Mississippi, ad- 
mitted in 1817, and Alabama, in 1819. Illinois, formed 
out of the Northwestern Territory, was admitted in 1818. 
Maine and Missouri soon afterward applied for admission. 

The Missouri Compromise. — An important question now 
arose. In 1819 there were eleven slave and eleven free 
States. This gave the North and the 
South an equal representation in the 
Senate. The South was anxious to pre- 
serve that equality. The admission of 
Maine would give a preponderance to 
the free States. It was therefore desired 
by Southern members that Missouri 
should be admitted as a slave Slate. 
This was opposed by many Northern 
members, who strongly objected to the 

, . „ , Heney Clay. 

extension oi slavery. 

The debate over this question was long and bitter. It 
was ended in 1820 by a bill introduced by Jesse B. Thomas, 
of Illinois, and strongly advocated by Henry Clay,^ the 

^ Henry Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. He entered the Ken- 
tucky legislature in 1803, and was elected in 1806 to the House of 
Representatives, whose Speaker he became in 1811. He was at tha,t 
time the leader of the war party, and was in later years dfstinguished 
as the advocate of several useful compromise measures. He served 
as Secretary of State under President John Quincy Adams, became a 
member of the Senate, and was three times an unsuccessful candidate 
for the Presidency. He became the leader of the Whig party on its 




292 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

Speaker of the House. This bill proposed that Missouri 
should be admitted as a slave State, but that slavery should 
forever be prohibited in any other part of the Western ter- 
ritory of the United States that lay north of the parallel of 
36° 30'. Such w^as the character of the famous Missouri 
Compromise, It divided the country into a free North and 
a slave-holding South, and for the next thirty years re- 
moved this question out of politics. Maine, whose admis- 
sion had been resisted, became a State March 15, 1820. 
Missouri was admitted August 10, 1821. 

Public Improvements. — The Cumberland Road, a na- 
tional highway to the West begun in 1806, had been 
extended from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling. It 
was now proposed to carry it to the Mississippi. It was 
gradually extended into Ohio, stretching farther and farther 
west, until in the end it was carried to the Mississippi by 
aid of the State governments. It was a broad, smooth, and 
soHd highway, over which moved westward a seemingly 
endless train of emigrant wagons. Other public improve- 
ments were advocated, but none were carried out, the 
President thinking that he had no power under the Con- 
stitution to spend the public money for such purposes. 

The Erie Canal. — Such public improvements were quite 
within the power of the States, and in 1817 a highly impor- 
tant one was begun in New York, that known as the Erie 
Canal. Its construction was mainly due to the unyielding 
perseverance of Governor De Witt Clinton. " Clinton's 
Ditch" it was called in derision by the opponents of the 
project. 

The Erie Canal was intended to connect the waters of 



formation, and died in 1852. Clay was the most distinguished oratoi 
of the South. 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 



293 



the Hudson River with those of Lake Erie. Its length was 
three hundred and sixty-three miles, and its construction 
an immense task, 
employing an army 



of laborers for eight 
years, during which 
they cut down for- 
ests, excavated rocks, 
carried the canal by 
locks up hill sides and 
by aqueducts across 
rivers. Begun July 
4, 1817, it was com- 
pleted in 1825, and 
has ever since been 
in active use. It has 
proved of immense advantage to New York City and State.^ 
Lafayette's Visit to America. — In 1824, near the close 
of Monroe's administration, Lafayette, the most distinguished 
foreign hero of the Revolution, visited this country at the 
request of Congress and on the invitation of the President. 




On the Erie Canal. 



^ When the water was let into the canal, in the autumn of 1825, the 
news was conveyed from Buffalo to New York by a row of cannon, 
about five miles apart, and fired in quick succession. That was one 
form of the telegraph of those days. Governor Clinton travelled by the 
canal from Buffalo to Albany, and by the Hudson River to New York, 
bringing a keg of water from Lake Erie which was poured with 
solemn ceremony into the harbor of New York. It indicated the mar- 
riage of the lake with the ocean. Before the canal was built it cost 
ten dollars and took three weeks to transport a barrel of flour from 
Buffalo to Albany. By the canal it could be sent through in a week, 
at a cost of thirty cents. To-day a constant procession of grain boats 
traverses the canal, day and night, from west to east, and one of boots 
laden with merchandise from east to west. 




294 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

No man ever liad a more enthusiastic reception. Forty 
years and more had passed since he left the United States. 
He was now nearly seventy, one of 
the last surviving friends and aides of 
Washington, and the whole people 
rose to do him honor. 

He spent more than a year travel- 
ling through the nation, visiting every 
State, and being everywhere greeted 
with affection and enthusiasm. Some 
of the old soldiers who had served 
courtesyofiionTcTirien.aK'ne Tower, under liim lYi the Revolutlon fainted 
Lafayette. .^^,j^j^ emotiou ou graspiug his hand. 

On June 17, 1825, he took part in laying the corner-stone 
of the Bunker Hill monument. It was just fifty years after 
the battle. 

Lafayette had spent much of his fortune in the American 
cause, and in recompense Congress voted him two hundred 
thousand dollars and twenty-four thousand acres of land. 

He was invited to a dinner at the White House, given by 
President Adams, and having as guests the ex-Presidents 
Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, all old friends of Lafayette. 
His return to France was made in a new naval vessel, 
named in his honor the Brandywine, after the battle in 
which he had taken a prominent part. 

Changes Seen by Lafayette. — To one who had not seen 
this country for forty years the changes must have seemed 
stupendous. The population had grown from less than 
three millions to about eleven millions. The thirteen States 
had expanded to twenty-four. The settlements, which had 
long clung to the coast region, now stretched beyond the 
Mississippi. What he had known as the colonies in rebel- 
lion had now become one of the greatest nations on the 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 295 

earth. The progress in agriculture, commerce, and manu- 
facture had been immejise. The flag of the United States 
was seen in all seas, and Europe was clothed with her 
cotton and fed with her grain. Peace, prosperity, and free- 
dom ruled, and the country had fully started on its great 
career. 

The Presidential Election of 1824. — In the Presidential 
contest of 1824 there were four candidates in the field. But 
there was still only one well-defined party, and these candi- 
dates were nominated by their political friends. When the 
votes were counted it appeared that Andrew Jackson had 
received ninety-nine, John Quincy Adams eighty-four, Wil- 
liam H. Crawford forty-one, and Henry Clay thirty-seven 
electoral votes. Jackson was evidently the choice of the 
people. But as he had not a majority of the whole electoral 
vote, the election was, by the Constitution, thrown into the 
House of Representatives and a choice made from the first 
three. Clay's friends supported Adams, and he was elected. 
John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was chosen Vice- 
President. 

2. 5obn (Siuincp HDams's H&mlnistration. 

Adams Unpopular. — Adams* was not a popular Pres- 
ident, though he proved a useful and an able one. He was 

^ John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, the second President, 
was born in Massachusetts, 1767. He served as United States Senator 
from Massachusetts from 1803 to 1809, and afterward held important 
government positions, among them those of minister to England and 
Secretary of State. Two years after leaving the Presidential chair he 
was sent to Congress as a Representative, and retained this position 
until his death in 1848. While in Congress he was highly honored 
and respected, and showed such ability in debate that he was called 
"the old man eloquent." 




296 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

retiring and austere in manner, and made few political 
friends, while his opponents, Clay and Jackson, had both a 
body of devoted followers. It was widely 
believed also that Jackson had been un- 
justly deprived of the seat, for which he 
ihad the largest popular and electoral vote. 
[Preparations were, therefore, at once made 
[to support him in the next campaign. 

Party Divisions. — The " Era of Good 
Feeling" was at an end. The President 
made Henry Clay Secretary of State, and 
JOHN QuiNCY Adams, was at once charged with repaying him 
for the votes of his friends. This personal division be- 
tween the supporters of Adams and Clay and those of 
Jackson and Crawford was followed by a political one, the 
administration party favoring a protective tariff and public 
improvements at the expense of the government, while its 
opponents favored free trade, or tariff for revenue only, and 
opposed public works at government expense, believing that 
each State should pay for its own improvements. 

The New Parties. — This difference of opinion grew into 
a party distinction. The administration party became known 
as National Republicans, because they wished to increase 
the powers of the national government. The opposition 
party, which had long been known as the Democratic- 
Republican, dropped the latter part of its name, and became 
known as the Democratic party. It advocated low tariff 
and State rights. These two parties, in effect, still exist, 
though the National Republican did not long retain that 
name. 

Higher Tariff. — The protection sentiments of the admin- 
istration Avere embodied in 1828 in a new tariff, higher than 
that of 1824. Very high duties were laid on wool and 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 297 

hemp, and increased duties on various other articles. It 
was not generally satisfactory, but Congress adopted it. Its 
enemies called it the " tariff of abominations." It was 
bitterly opposed in the South, and John C. Calhoun sug- 
gested that South Carolina should declare the act " null 
and void" within that State. This was the first step toward 
nuUification of the tariff, which was attempted four years 
afterward. 

Internal Improvements. — The second feature of the ad- 
ministration policy, that of " internal improvements," was 
strongly advocated by the President. He believed that Con- 
gress had full right under the Constitution to order public 
works, and suggested that public roads, canals, and fortifi- 
cations should be built, a national university established, 
national observatories erected, and scientific enterprises 
undertaken. Congress passed several such bills, but oppo- 
sition to them was strong, and years passed before the 
views of Adams gained extended public support. 

Death of Adams and Jefferson. — On July 4, 1826, two 
€x-Presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, died. 
By a singular and interesting coincidence their death took 
place on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, which one of them had written and the other 
aided to prepare. John Adams had the special gratification 
of living to see his son President of the United States. 

Removal of the Creek Indians. — An important act of 
the Adams administrption was the removal of the Creek 
Indians from their old domain. The Federal government 
had agreed in 1802 to remove these Indians from Georgia, 
and in 1819 that State called on the government to fulfil its 
•agreement. Steps were taken, and in 1825 some of the 
Creek chiefs, acting on their own authority, agreed to cede 
the tribal lands and accept new ones beyond the Mississippi. 



298 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

This was a trick which the tribe repudiated, and the chiefs 
who made the treaty were put to death. Georgia tried to 
take possession, and for a time an Indian war was threat- 
ened. In 1826 a new treaty was made, in which the Creeks 
agreed to removal, parting with most of their land, and 
accepting new lands in the West. The Cherokees, another 
tribe of Georgia Indians, were removed at a later date. 

Anti-Masonic Party. — A new political party arose in an 
unusual manner. William Morgan, a member of the society 
of Freemasons, published a book in 1826 in which he pro- 
fessed to reveal the secrets of the society. He disappeared, 
and it was believed by many that the Masons had mur- 
dered him. The feeling against the society became so strong 
that it gave rise to a new political party called the Anti- 
Masonic, its purpose being to exclude all Freemasons from 
office. It nominated a candidate for the Presidency in 1832, 
but soon after died out. 

The Temperance Cause. — As has been already stated, 
the drinking of intoxicating liquors was very common in 
colonial times. It continued so in the early days of the 
States, drunkenness being a serious evil, which affected 
even the highest classes of society. Temperance societies 
had been formed, but had done little good. The first suc- 
cessful temperance society was established in 1826, and in 
the years that followed the temperance cause won thousands 
of adherents, and did remarkable work in repressing the 
mania for strong drink.^ 

^ Total abstinence was not required by the early temperance socie- 
ties. All they demanded was abstinence from distilled spirits, — whis- 
key, brandy, and rum. In 1840 the Washingtonian Temperance Society 
was formed, which required total abstinence. It is said that this move- 
ment reformed one hundred and fifty thousand drunkards. In 1846 
the " Maine Law," prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 299 

The Election of 1828. — In the next Presidential election 
there were two candidates nominated. The two parties had 
now become well defined, Adams being the candidate of the 
National Repubhcan, Jackson of the Democratic. In the 
election the sentiment of the people was strongly expressed. 
Jackson was a popular military hero, a fact which greatly 
strengthened his party. He was elected by a majority of 
ninety-five electoral votes. John C. Calhoun was elected 
Vice-President. 

3. 3acftson's Hbmintstration. 

Character of Jackson. — Hitherto the Presidential chair 
had been filled by men trained in statesmanship. Now a 
new feeling arose. Men said that there was danger of an 
aristocracy, and supported Jackson as a man of the people. 
It was this sentiment, and his military reputation, much 
more than any pohtical reason, that made him President. 

Andrew Jackson ^ was obstinate in disposition. He took 
his beliefs strongly, and, being always sure he was right, 

liquors in the State of Maine, was passed. At later dates other States 
enacted similar laws. The result of the temperance movement has 
been that drunkenness has greatly decreased in the United States, and 
has quite lost the respectability which it once possessed. 

' Andrew Jackson was born in one of the Carolinas (it is not sure 
which) in 1767. He was an active, athletic lad, not given to books, 
and passing a life of adventure. At fourteen he was taken prisoner by 
the British, and was wounded on the head by an officer whose boots 
he had refused to clean. After the war he engaged in various pursuits, 
finally became a lawyer, and was sent to Congress in 1796. He dis- 
tinguished himself greatly in the war with the Creek Indians and at 
the battle of New Orleans, and gained popular fame by his-dealings 
with the Spanish in Florida. After his retirement from the Presidency 
he lived quietly at the Hermitage, his home near Nashville, where he 
died in 1845. 

20 




300 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

could not often be moved by argument. He was a firm 

friend and a bitter enemy, and had the dangerous weakness 

of looking upon his personal enemies 

as enemies of the country. He had an 

unyielding will, as his Cabinet officers 

found, their influence in the affairs of 

government being very slight. His one 

good c|uality was honesty. He meant 

well by the country in all he did, and 

attacked what he thought corruption 

without a care for who might be hurt. 

Eotation in Office. — Jackson began 

ANDREW Jackson. j^j^ ^j.^,^j^j ^^^^^^ ^^ inaugurating a new 

and unwise system of office-holding, that known as " rota- 
tion in office." It was growing to be considered undemo- 
cratic for public offices to be held long by the same per- 
son. The offices belonged to the people, men said, and 
should be enjoyed by as many of the people as possible. 

A different view had before prevailed, the former Presi- 
dents making few removals. Jefferson, who made the most, 
soon stopped doing so, and afterward refused to remove any 
honest, faithful, and capable office-holder, whatever his polit- 
ical opinions. From 1789 to 1829 less than a hundred re^ 
movals were made, and some of these were for theft. Jack- 
son turned out fully two thousand, and filled their places 
with men of his own party. 

The Spoils System. — This system came to be known as 
the " Spoils System," from a remark of Senator Marcy in 
1834, who spoke of politics as conducted on the principle 
that " to the victors belong the spoils." It proved to be 
highly injurious to the public service of the country, capable 
and experienced men being removed from office every four 
years to make way for untried aspirants, whose only claim 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 



301 




John C. Calhous. 



was that they had voted and worked for the party, and who 

were often incapable of properly performing, their official 

duties. This vicious system is now 

being rapidly set aside by the Civil 

Service ,Reform movement. 

Nullification. — While Jackson was 

doing evil in this direction he was doing 

good in another. The tariff of 1828 

was extremely unpopular in the South, 

as it added considerably to the cost of 

goods which were received in exchange 

for cotton. John C, Calhoun declared 

that any State had the right to decide 

if such an act was constitutional, and, if not, to declare it 

null and void. This would be to nuHify an act of Congress, 
and the doctrine was called " nullifi- 
cation." In 1830 it gave rise to 
a remarkable debate in Congress. 
Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, 
supported the doctrine in a powerful 
speech. He was answered by Daniel 
Webster,^ Senator from Massachu- 
setts, in one of the greatest orations 
that has ever been delivered, and 
which closed with the striking re- 
mark, " Liberty and Union, one and 

inseparable, now and forever." In a later reply to Cal- 




DaNIEL WEB.STEK. 



^ Daniel Webster, the great American orator and statesman, was born 
in New Hampshire in 1782. He studied law, entered politics, and was 
sent to Congress in 1813. He rose rapidly in estimation as an orator. 
His career in Congress was a most brilliant one, but he failed to gain 
the nomination for President, though his name was presented in 1844, 



302 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

houn ^ he declared that " there can be no secession without 
revolution." 

How Jackson Dealt with the NuUifiers. — During the 
year 1832 a new tariff bill was passed. It considerably de- 
creased the average rate of duty, but the principle of pro- 
tection was maintained, and the South continued dissatisfied. 
In December South Carolina took positive action. A State 
convention declared the tariff null and void, forbade the 
collection of duties within the State, and threatened, if 
interfered with in this action, to secede from the Union. 

President Jackson believed in low tariff, but not in seces- 
sion. He at once issued a vigorous proclamation, saying 
that the Federal laws must be obeyed, and that resistance 
to them would not be permitted. To prove that he meant 
this. Lieutenant Farragut was sent with a naval force to 
Charleston harbor, and General Scott was ordered with 
troops to Charleston. Every one knew that Jackson meant 
just what he said, and the duties were collected in Charles- 
ton as usual. 

The Compromise Tariff. — Congress, however, made 
efforts to remove the cause of dispute, and, through the 
efforts of Henry Clay, a compromise tariff bill was passed. 
Under this there was to be a gradual reduction of duties 
until 1842, when a uniform rate would be reached sufficient 
only for revenue purposes. 

1848, ^nd 1852. He lost popularity by defending the Compromise bill 
of 1850, and died in 1852. 

^ John C. Calhoun was born in South Carolina in 1782, studied law, 
and was sent to Congress in 1811, where he gained great distinction as 
an orator. He served as Secretary of War under President Monroe, 
and was elected Vice-President in 1824 and again in 1828. He favored 
a protective tariff in 1816, but afterward became a strong advocate of 
free trade. He died in 1850. 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 303 

A Surplus of Revenue. — Just then the need of revenue 
was small. The debt of the United States had all been 
paid off, and a considerable surplus lay in the treasury. 
What to do with this became a question. Congress finally 
decided to divide it among the States, and tw^enty-eight 
million dollars were thus distributed. Soon afterward the 
expenses of the government increased and its revenue de- 
creased, and it was again in debt. It has been in debt ever 
since, and there has been no more money to divide among 
the States. 

The United States Bank Bill Vetoed. — We have de- 
scribed two decided actions of President Jackson, the inau- 
guration of " rotation in office" and the overthrow of " nul- 
lification." A third remains to describe. The Bank of the 
United States, founded first in 1791 and a second time in 
1816, and chartered for twenty years, would cease to exist 
in 1836 unless its charter were renewed. . It applied for a 
renewal in 1832, four years in advance, and Congress passed 
a bill granting the request. 

But Jackson had diff'erent views. The bank had opposed 
him politically, and made him its enemy. He declared that 
it was growing too powerful and was becoming dangerous 
to the country. In consequence he vetoed the bill, and 
Congress failed to pass it over his veto. 

Removal of the Deposits. — The President did not con- 
fine himself to this. He was determined to destroy the 
bank, and in 1833 he removed from its vaults the govern- 
ment money, and distributed this among certain State 
banks. Those which were thus favored became known as 
Pet Banks. It is doubtful if he had any right to do this 
under the Constitution. He was censured by the Senate, 
but he held to his point, and the ruin of the bank was 
accomplished 



304 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

A Period of Speculation. — Whether Jackson was right 
in believing the bank to be dangerous is a question that has 
never been settled. That his mode of dealing with it was 
dangerous is a settled question. The money placed in the 
State banks was loaned freely to merchants and others, 
who began to use it with great freedom for speculative 
purposes. There Avas a wild movement of operations in 
Western territory. Sections of government land were 
bought and laid out in building lots. New cities were 
planned to be built in a few months. Men gfew reckless 
in their desire to become rich suddenly, and buying and 
selhng on credit became the rage. The result of this mania 
of speculation came in the next administration, and will be 
told in the story of that period. 

The Abolition Movement. — An important party move- 
ment began in Jackson's administration which was to grow 
very prominent in later years. This was the Anti-Slavery 
or Abolition movement. There had long been a strong op- 
position to the extension of slavery, but this for the time 
had been set aside by the Missouri Compromise, There 
now arose an opposition to the existence of slavery in any 
of the States. 

In 1831, William Lloyd Garrison started in Boston a 
paper which he called TJie Liberator, in whicli he advocated 
the " immediate and unconditional emancipation of every 
slave held in the United States," He soon gained followers, 
anti-slavery societies were formed, and active measures 
were taken to advocate their opinions, by lectures and 
pamphlets. But many who favored gradual emancipation 
opposed Mr, Garrison's methods, and the anti-slavery cause 
made slow progress. 

The Nat Turner Insurrection. — In 1831 an insurrection 
of slaves occurred in Virginia. It was led by a negro 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 305 

named Nat Turner, and before it was put down over sixty 
whites, men, women, and children, had been killed. This 
event caused great alarm in the South, and helped to 
arouse public feeling in the North against the abolition 
movement. Anti-slavery meetings were broken up with 
violence, and on one occasion a mob dragged Mr. Garrison 
through the streets of Boston with a rope around his body. 
The police had great difficulty in saving his life. 

Indian "Wars, — The rapid settlement of the West gave 
rise in 1832 to an Indian war, as it had on several occa- 
sions before. The lands of the Winnebagoes and the Sacs 
and Foxes, in Illinois and Wisconsin, were being overrun, 
and a famous chief named Black Hawk led the tribes 
against the settlers.^ They were soon put down, and made 
a treaty by which they gave up about ten million acres. 
For this they were to receive yearly supplies and an annu- 
ity in money. 

The Cherokees of Georgia and the Seminoles of Florida 
were also in the way of the whites, and efforts at their 
removal were made. The Seminoles resisted, and a war 
broke out with them in 1835, the Indians being led by a 
celebrated chief named Osceola. This war lasted nearly 
seven years. Osceola, who had been driven to war by bad 
treatment, was captured by treachery, and died in confine- 
ment. The war dragged on until 1842, and was attended 
by many cruel incidents. In the end most of the Seminoles 
were removed to the Indian Territory. 

Removal of the Cherokees. — The Cherokees were taken 
to the same Territory by force in 1838. They received a 
large sum for their lands in Georgia, but they were forced 
to accept the treaty, and in the removal nearly four thou- 

* Abraham Lincoln, then a young man, took part in this war. 



306 



THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 



sand of them perished, — about a fourth of the whole. This 
was a flagrant instance of the cruelty with which the whites 
have treated the Indians. 

Chicago Founded. — On the southwestern shore of Lake 
Michigan stood a small fortification named Fort Dearborn. 




Chicago in 1832. 

It had been taken by the British in 1812, and in 1831 was 
surrounded by about a dozen rude houses. In 1833 the 
setilement was named Chicago, from the Indian name of 
Chicago River. It then embraced something over five hun- 
dred inhabitants. In sixty years afterward it had more 
than a million inhabitants and was one of the largest cities 
in the world. 

Steps of Progress. — Two new States were admitted 
during Jackson's administration, — Arkansas, in 1836, and 
Michigan, in 1837. It was a period of great industrial 
progress. Railroads had been introduced, and before the 
end of Jackson's second term two thousand miles of railroad 
had been built. Steam navigation was rapidly extending. 
In 1836, John Ericsson invented the screw-propeller, which 
has largely taken the place of the paddle-wheel in steam 
navigation. The McCormick reaper and the Nasmyth 



VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION. 307 

steam-hammer were introduced. Gas was taking the place 
of oil and candles in city houses, water-works were re- 
placing wells, and among the smaller but highly useful 
inventions were friction-matches, which first became known 
in 1829. 

Political Changes. — In 1832, Jackson had been re-elected 
President of the United States. He was still highly popu- 
lar, and received two hundred and nineteen electoral votes, 
while Henry Clay, the National Republican candidate, re- 
ceived forty-nine. Martin Van Buren was elected Vice- 
President. In 1834 the National Republicans began to 
adopt a new name, calHng themselves "Whigs." They 
claimed that Jackson was a kind of tyrant, whom they 
opposed as the Whigs of the Revolutionary period had 
opposed George III. A Southern party who opposed the 
President called themselves " State Rights Whigs." 
. The Election of 1836.— When the time for the next 
Presidential election came, Jackson declined to run again, 
and the Democrats, at his instigation, nominated Martin Van 
Buren, the Vice-President. The Whigs nominated William 
Henry Harrison, a soldier of the war of 1812. The State 
Rights Whigs nominated Hugh White. In the election the 
Democratic party again triumphed, electing Van Buren by 
one hundred and seventy electoral votes, against one hun- 
dred and twenty-four for the other candidates. 

4. Van ifiSuren's H^mtnistration. ' 

Wild-Cat Banks. — Martin Van Buren ^ had not been long 
in the Presidential chair before the effects of the policy of 

^ Martin Van Buren was born in the State of New York in 1782. He 
studied law and early entered political life. In 1818 he became a 
leader in the New York Democracy, was elected United States senator 



308 



THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 



his predecessor made themselves felt. The overthrow of 
the United States Bank was followed by the establishment 
of a host of State banks, many of 
them without capital, and issuing 
notes which they were very unlikely 
to redeem. These became known 
as " wild-cat banks." Some of these 
State banks whose directors were in 
harmony with Jackson's views re- 
ceived deposits of government 
money. This money, as already 
said, soon made its way into the 
hands of borrowers and gave rise to 
a high tide of speculation. Land at 
first, and afterward almost every- 
thing, were speculated in, and paid for largely in the notes 
of the wild-cat banks.^ 

The Panic of 1837. — Much of the land bought was pur- 
chased from the government. When Jackson found that it 
was being paid for largely in notes that soon became worth- 
less, an order was issued to the government agents to accept 
only gold in payment for public lands. This order precipi- 
tated a panic. 




Martin Van Buren. 



in 1821 and governor of New York in 1828. He was Secretary of State 
during Jackson's first term and Vice-President during his second. He 
Was defeated for re-election to the Presidency in 1840 and in 1848. He 
died in 1862. 

' Men grew so eager in land speculation that they purchased freely 
of land they never had seen and never were liicely to see. Town lots 
were bought at high prices in the far backwoods, and the sites of some 
of the Western cities — which existed only on paper — were six feet 
under water. In Dickens's story of " Martin Chuzzlewit" he gives an 
amusing description of one of these paper cities, dignified with the 
name of Eden. 



VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION. 309 

It began in 1837, shortly after Van Buren took his seat, 
in the failure of a large New Orleans business house. Other 
failures quickly followed. Land was hastily offered for sale, 
but no one would buy it. Prices fell rapidly. In ten days 
a hundred New York merchants found their business ruined. 
Within two months the failures in that city alone reached 
the sum of one hundred million dollars. 

The State bank notes came back in numbers for payment, 
but there was no gold or silver in the vaults to redeem 
them, and the banks began to fail in all directions. Gold 
and silver vanished from sight, and the government was 
forced to pay its debts in paper money. 

The business depression that followed was one of the 
worst the country has ever known. Everywhere mills .and 
factories stopped and workmen were thrown out of em- 
ployment. The government was forced to suspend the 
payment of the surplus ordered to be divided among the 
States, and the fourth instalment of this was never paid.' 

State Repudiation. — The panic brought many of the 
States into trouble. Large sums had been borrowed in 
Europe for public improvements, such as canals and rail- 
roads, and seven of the States found it impossible to pay 
the interest on this debt, while one of them, Mississippi, 
refused to pay either interest or principal. American credit 
suffered a severe shock from this action. 

The Sub-Treasury System. — The panic lasted for a year, 
but several years passed before business regained prosperity. 

^ In 1837-38 there was a revolt in Canada against the British gov- 
ernment which called forth much sympathy in the United States. 
Meetings were held and men and arms offered. This movement was 
checked by a proclamation from the President, and General Scott was 
sent to the border to watch events, an action wliich averted what 
mi'j;ht have led to a war with Great Britain. 



310 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

One good result came from it. Tlie President perceived 
the danger of depositing the government funds in irresponsi- 
ble banks, and recommended to Congre.ss the establishment 
of an independent treasury, or place of deposit for govern- 
ment money, at Washington, with branches, known as sub- 
treasuries, in the chief cities.^ 

This system met with strong opposition. It was adopted 
in 1840, repealed in 1841, and adopted again in 1846. It 
has since remained in force. It has the one serious objection 
that it withdraws large sums of money from circulation. 
This, in times of financial disturbance, is found to cause 
serious trouble. 

The Election of 1840. — The depression in business 
proved a severe blow to the Democratic party. Van Buren 
was renominated, and was opposed by William Henry 
Harrison ^ as the Whig candidate. Harrison received two 
hundred and thirty-four electoral votes to sixty for Van 
Buren. There was an abolition candidate, James Birney, 
but he received no electoral votes. 



' The United States treasury is in the Treasury building at Wash- 
ington. There are sub-treasuries in New York, Philadelphia, Bos- 
ton, Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Baltimore, New Orleans, and San 
Francisco. 

^ Harrison had won the battle of Tippecanoe, had lived in a log 
cabin and drunk hard cider. Much was made of these facts in the 
campaign. He was called the " Hero of Tippecanoe," hard cider was 
a party watchword, and log cabins formed a prominent feature of the 
meetings and processions. He was called a man of the people, and 
Van Buren an aristocrat with a silver tea-service. 




THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 31] 

5. Ube iRarrison an& Uyler H&ministrations. 

A Brief Whig Administration. — For forty years, from 
the date of Jefferson's election in 1800 to that of Harrison 
in 1840, the Democratic party had 
been in power. But though the party 
name remained the same, its princi- 
ples varied. At one time it sustained 
protection, at others free trade. It 
was not until after 1825 that distinc- 
tively free trade and protection par- 
ties arose, and, though Adams favored 
the latter, the election of Harrison 
was its first triumph at the polls. 

Its career at this time did not last ''""'*' """'''■ ^'^^''^^■ 
long. President Harrison ^ lived only long enough to select 
his Cabinet and begin his duties. He died April 4, 1841, 
having been just one month in office. John Tyler,^ the 
Vice-President, succeeded him in the Presidential chair. 
Though elected by the Whigs, he was a Democrat in polit- 

^ William Henry Harrison was born in Virginia in 1773. His father 
was governor of Virginia. He entered the army in 1791, took part in 
General Wayne's campaign against the Indians, and occupied several 
prominent positions in the Northwest. His military service during 
Madison's administration has been described under that heading. He 
was a Presidential candidate in 1836 and was elected in 1840, but the 
pressure of office-seekers proved too much for his strength, and he 
died in a month. 

' John Tyler, who succeeded Harrison as President, was born in Vir- 
ginia in 1790. He was a prominent member of the State Rights party, 
and though elected Vice-President by the Whigs retained the free-trade 
principles of his party. He was the first Vice-President who succeeded 
to the Presidency. In 1861 he presided over the peace convention at 
Washington. He afterward joined the Confederacy, and died in 1862 
in Richmond, while a member of the Confederate Congress. 



312 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

ical opinion, and the Whig administration had but a month's 
actual existence. 

Political Conflict. — Harrison had called an extra session 
of Congress to consider the financial condition of the coun- 
try, and the Whig majority quickly i)assed a bill for the 
establishment of a new Bank of the United States. To 
their dismay they found they had an opponent in the Pres- 
idential chair. Tyler vetoed the bill. Another bill was 
passed to meet the President's objec» 
tions, but he vetoed this also. 

A quarrel now arose between the 
Whig party, led by Henry Clay, and 
the President. The Whigs called him 
a renegade. He replied that he had 
never endorsed their principles. This 
was true, but it did not satisfy the 
Whigs, and all the Cabinet resigned 
except Webster, who was negotiating 
a treaty with Great Britain. During 
the remainder of Tyler's administration an open conflict 
existed between him and the Congressional majority. In 
1843 the Democrats gained a majority in Congress, and the 
short term of Whig supremacy came to an end. 

The Rhode Island Contest. — During these political 
troubles in Washington, a serious contest arose in Rhode 
Island. That State still conducted its government under 
the old charter granted in 1662 by Charles II, by which 
only the oldest sons of voters had full right of suffrage, all 
other voters needing to possess a certain amount of prop- 
erty. The effect of this was that about two-thirds of the 
people were deprived of the right to vote. The representa- 
tion in the assembly was also very unfair. 
A new constitution was demanded, and a convention of 




THE HARRISON ANF TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 313 

the noil -voters prepared one in 1841, and submitted it to 
tlie votes of all the people. It was carried. A constitution 
prepared by the party in power, and submitted to the legal 
voters, was rejected. 

The Dorr Rebellion. — Both parties now elected officials. 
The reform party made Thomas W. Dorr governor, and he 
proceeded to enter upon the duties of the office in May, 
1842. The other party also elected a governor, denounced 
Dorr and his party, called out the militia, and appealed to 
the President. Dorr attempted to seize the State arsenal, 
but found it guarded by militia. President Tyler sent United 
States troops to Fort Adams, at Newport, and Dorr, finding 
that his supporters were deserting him, fled from the State. 

A New Constitution. — The reform movement, however, 
had its effect. A new convention was called, in which non- 
voters were represented, and a third and more liberal con- 
stitution was drawn up, in which most of the changes 
desired were granted. It went into effect in May, 1843. 

In 1844, Dorr returned to the State, was tried for treason, 
based on his attempt to seize the State arsenal, and was 
sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was pardoned, 
however, in the following year. Since then the constitu- 
tion of Rhode Island has been amended, and the people 
now have fuller suffrage privileges than the Dorr party 
demanded. 

The Anti-Renters. — About the same time a difficulty 
coming from colonial customs arose in New York. Some 
of the lands of the old Dutch patroons were still held by 
their descendants, who claimed payment of the old annual 
charges in produce. The rent demanded was very light,^ 

* The rent consisted of " a few bushels of wheat, three or four fat 
fowls, and a day's work with horse and wagon, per year." It was the 
last relic of feudalism in America. 



314 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

but was resisted as illegal. About 1840 many of the ten- 
ants refused to pay rent. Riots broke out, the anti-renters 
disguising themselves as Indians, tarring and feathering 
those who paid rents, and even killing some of the officers 
who served warrants on them. 

It became necessary to call out the militia to put down 
the rioters, and the affair became known as the " Helder- 
berg War." The dispute made its way into politics, and a 
political faction known as the " Anti-Renters" arose in New 
York. Gradually the trouble ended by the tenants buying 
the rights of the proprietors, and the last vestige of patroon 
rule died away. 

Treaty with Great Britain. — While these political diffi- 
culties were being settled at home, others were being at- 
tended to abroad. Daniel Webster, who had been chosen 
as Secretary of State by Harrison, remained in Tyler's Cab- 
inet while negotiating a treaty with Lord Ashburton, the 
representative of the British government. A question re- 
garding the boundary-line between Maine and Canada had 
remained unsettled. In the new treaty the boundary be- 
tween the two countries was definitely fixed from the At- 
lantic to the Rocky Mountains. 

Other questions were considered, one being that of the 
" right of search," which had given rise to the war of 1812. 
It was not settled, but Webster declared that sailors in 
American- ships would find protection in the flag that cov- 
ered them. This was giving Great Britain notice that war 
would follow any future interference with American sea- 
men. There was also an extradition clause in the treaty : 
that is, one providing for the return of criminals who had 
fled from one country to the other. 

The Oregon Boundary. — A further boundary question, 
which was settled somewhat later, may be spoken of here. 



THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 315 

The Oregon country was originally claimed by Spain, Great 
Britain, and the United States. Spain ceded her claim to 
the United States, which country also gained a claim from 
the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain Gray in 
1792, the Lewis and Clark exploration of 1805-6, and the 
fur-trading settlement of Astoria in 1811. Great Britain 
also claimed exploration and settlement, based on the oper- 
ations of the Hudson Bay Company of fur-traders, which 
had gained possession of the Astor Fur Company's settle- 
ment at Astoria. 

The country in dispute extended from the Mexican prov- 
ince of California to the Russian province of Alaska. By 
1832 migration began to make its way across the mountains 
into Oregon, and it became necessary to settle the question 
of ownership.^ This question grew prominent near the end 
of the Tyler administration, the American claim being for 
the whole region to the parallel of 54° 40', the southern 
boundary of Alaska. The political war-cry was, " Fifty- 
four forty or fight," signifying that this country would fight 
for Oregon up to that boundary. At length, in 1846, a 
treaty was made which divided the disputed region at the 
forty-ninth parallel, which already formed the boundary 

1 The gaining of Oregon has been ascribed to Dr. Marcus Whitman, 
a missionary physician among the Indians of the Columbia region. 
Finding that the Hudson Bay Company was making efforts to win the 
country for Great Britain by bringing settlers thither, Whitman made 
a winter's journey on" horseback across the Rocky Mountains, suffer- 
ing severely on his way and encountering many perils, his purpose 
being to induce the government to claim this territory. This story of 
Whitman's service to Oregon seems to be very doubtful, in the light 
of recent investigation. It now appears that he went east on mis- 
sionary business alone, and took a minor part in the subsequent im- 
migration to Oregon. The records show that the United States had 
long before claimed this region. 



316 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

east of the Rocky Mountains. The northern portion be- 
came Britisli Cokunbia ; the southern, Oregon, — now com- 
prising the States of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. 

The Insurrection in Texas. — Still another important 
question of foreign relations came up in tlie Tyler adminis- 
tration. When the United States purchased Florida, the 
western boundary of Louisiana was lixed at the Sabine 
River, beyond which lay the Spanish province of Texas. 
Many settlers from the Southern States made their way, 
with their slaves, into Texas, and when Mexico abolished 
slavery, in 1824, these settlers retained their slaves. The 
United States sought to purchase Texas in 1827 and 1829, 
but Mexico declined to sell. 

By 1836 the Americans in Texas greatly exceeded the 
Mexicans in number, and, being greatly dissatisfied with the 
character of the government, broke into open revolt. The 
Mexicans attempted to conquer the insurgents, and a des- 
perate war began. General Sam Houston leading the re- 
volting forces. In 1836 a severe battle took place at San 
Jacinto with the Mexican army under Santa Anna. The 
Texans were greatly outnumbered, but gained a complete 
victory. Santa Anna, who was military dictator of Mexico, 
was taken prisoner and forced to acknowledge the inde- 
pendence of Texas. Mexico refused to be bound by this 
action, though it made no effort to reconquer the country. 

The Annexation of Texas. — The Texans, having estab- 
lished a republic of their own, applied in 1837 for admission 
into the United States. This question remained open for 
years, the North opposing it, the South favoring it. Many 
politicians wished to open new territory to slavery, while 
speculators who held large tracts of land in Texas hoped 
for a great advance in value under United States rule. 

This question came up prominently in the Presidential 



THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 317 

election year of 1844, the Democrats nominating and elect- 
ing James K. Polk, who was in favor of annexation. This 
result settled the question. The people had expressed 
their will, and both Houses of Congress, in the last hours 
of Tyler's administration, passed a bill in favor of admitting 
Texas, which was signed by the President. Texas accepted 
the offer July 4, 1845, and was formally admitted as a 
State to the Union in December of that year. Florida had 
been admitted on the last day of President Tyler's term, 
March 3, 1845. 

The Mormons. — In 1830, Joseph Smith, of New York, 
published a work entitled the " Book of Mormon," pro- 
fessing to contain a new revelation which he had received 
in a miraculous manner. He soon gained followers, with 
whom he went to Ohio, then to Missouri, and finally to 
Illinois. Jlere a tract of land was bought, a charter ob- 
tained from the legislature, and a new city, which was 
named Nauvoo, was begun on the banks of the Missis- 
sippi. 

In 1843, Smith professed to have another revelation, and, 
declaring that every true Mormon marriage would last 
forever, he encouraged his followers to marry as many 
wives as they chose. By that time there were about 
fifteen thousand people in Nauvoo. The polygamy revela- 
tion soon made trouble. Smith was arrested for an act of 
violence, and a mob, furious at his practice of polygamy, 
broke into the prison and killed him and his brother. 

The Mormon Emigration. — This was in 1844. Brigham 
Young, a man of marked ability, now became leader of the 
Mormons. The opposition growing very great, he deter- 
mined to lead his followers to a place in the far West 
where they would be free from oppression and able to live 
as they thought right and proper. The migration began in 



318 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 

1846, In 1847 they reached the region now known as 
Utah, and settled in the vicinity of the Great Salt Lake. 
The region was barren and desolate, and it was predicted 
that the Mormons would starve. But Young had canals 
dug to bring water from the mountains, and soon had the 
country so well irrigated that it bore abundant crops. 
There is no more prolific part of the country now than the 
vicinity of Salt Lake City, and the population has grown 
large. 

The Telegraph and Anaesthesia. — There were two very 
important discoveries made in the period now under con- 
sideration. Samuel F. B. Morse, after years of experiment 
with the electric telegraph, succeeded in obtaining a grant 
from Congress for putting up a telegraph line between Bal- 
timore and Washington. This was completed in 1844, and 
on May 24 there was sent over the wire the following 
significant message : " What hath God wrought !" 

Another discovery, of the greatest importance to mankind, 
was made by Dr. William T. G. Morton, of Boston. This 
was the discovery of anaesthesia, or the causing of artificial 
sleep, by breathing the vapor of ether. Before that time all 
surgical operations had been attended with great pain. By 
this process patients could be rendered insensible to pain 
and the most delicate operations be performed without suf- 
fering. The discovery was first made known in 1846, and 
its fiftieth anniversary was celebrated in 1896. 

Emigration. — Emigration to the United States had now 
become great. Regular lines of steamers ran from Boston 
and New York to Liverpool, and people from abroad began 
to pour into the country at the rate of over three thousand 
weekly. Between 1840 and 1850 nearly two million new 
settlers came, — twice as many as had arrived in forty years 
before. 



THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 319 

The Election of 1844. — The election of James K. Polk 
to the Presidency by the Democratic party, as above men- 
tioned, was due to the action of his Whig opponent, Henry 
Clay. Clay opposed the annexation of Texas, the question 
on which the election turned, but for fear of losing- Southern 
votes he failed to express his true sentiments. As a con- 
sequence, he lost the State of New York by a small ma- 
jority, and with it the election.^ 

A Prominent Question. — The election of the Democratic 
candidate, in a contest whose main issue was the annexa- 
tion of Texas, produced momentous results. With it was 
reopened the slavery question, which had been for years 
settled by the Missouri Compromise, but which was now to 
remain the most prominent political question until it was 
finally disposed of by the result of the Civil War. 

^ A closely similar result appeared in 1884, forty years later, in the 
Blaine-Cleveland contest. In consequence of injudicious remarks by 
an adherent of Blaine he lost the State of New York by a small ma- 
jority, and with it lost the election. 



PART VIII. 
THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 



I. poll?'s' B&ministranon. 

Abolitionism. — The subject of slavery had not been al- 
lowed to sleep in Congress. John Quincy Adams, who was 
a member of the House from 1831 to 1848, kept up its. 
discussion, much to the annoyance of Southern members. 
The party favoring abolition was on 
the increase in the North, and the 
feeling of irritation was growing in 
Congress. As yet the slave and free 
States were nearly equal in numbers ; 
but the Missouri Compromise pre- 
vented the formation of any more 
slave States out of the existing terri- 
tory of the United States, while there 
was abundant room for free States. 
For this reason the annexation of 
Texas was particularly desired in the South. It was pro- 
vided that, if its people consented, Texas might be divided 

^ James Knox Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795. He became 
governor of Tennessee in 1839, after fourteen years' service in Con- 
gress, during which he was Speaker of the House for four years. He 
was the first instance of what is known as a " dark horse" in a Presi- 
dential nomination ; that is, a man of no prominence as a candidate 
who is nominated as a compromise between opposing interests. He 
was a man of excellent private character, but a strong partisan in 
political opiuiun. He died shortly after the end of his term of ofhce. 
320 




James K. Polk. 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 



321 



To^^ W ■''°°ei tilde li^ West'' lj)7 / from 



ich 97 

AR WITH MEXICO 

SCALE OF MILES 
100 200 300 400 500 

.ft , y-'^XJt- IOWA 







Blanc" 



322 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

into four States, but no movement to do this has ever 
been taken, and Texas was the last slave State admitted 
to the Union. 

The Boundary of Texas. — In admitting Texas the United 
States had opened the way to a serious trouble. Mexico 
had never acknowledged the independence of its lost prov- 
ince, though it had taken no steps to recover it. And an 
important boundary question existed. Texas claimed that 
her western boundary was the Rio Grande. Mexico held 
that the Nueces River was the true boundar}'. Retween 
these two rivers lay a wide tract of land which both countries 
claimed. The question of its ownership led to war. 

The Disputed Territory Occupied. — President Polk lost 
no time in taking decisive steps. General Zachary Taylor 
was ordered, in the summer of 1845, to Corpus Christi, on 
the Nueces, and in the spring of 1846 was directed to pro- 
ceed to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans claimed that Taylor 
had invaded their country, ordered him to retire, and on his 
refusal sent their own troops across the river. 

Fighting Begins. — On April 24, 1846, a fight took place 
and blood was shed. As soon as news of this skirmish 
reached Washington, the President sent a message to Con- 
gress, saying that " Mexico has passed the boundary of the 
United States, and shed American blood upon American 
soil. . . . War exists, notwithstanding all our efforts to 
avoid it." 

Declaration of "War. — This message roused opposition 
in Congress from Northern members. Abraham Lincoln, 
who was then a member, plainly asked if special efforts had 
not been taken to provoke a war. Congress, however, re- 
sponded favorably to the President's message, declared that 
war existed " by the act of Mexico," and called for fifty thou- 
sand volunteers. 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 323 

Taylor's Advance, — War was declared on May 13, 1846. 

Several days before — on May 8 and 9 — severe conflicts had 
taken place at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, "within 
the disputed territory. The Mexicans were defeated and 
retreated across the Rio Grande. Taylor followed them and 
took possession of the town of Matamoras. 

Plans of Campaign. — The War Department planned an 
invasion of Mexico in four quarters. General Taylor was 
to penetrate Northern Mexico from his position on the Rio 
Grande ; General Winfield Scott was to advance upon the 
capital by way of Vera Cruz ; General Stephen W. Kearny 
was to invade New Mexico ; California was to be attacked 
by a naval expedition, a fleet having already been sent to 
the Pacific coast. 

Taylor's Successes. — General Taylor, having waited 
until September for reinforcements, advanced on the 5th of 
that month, and on the 9th reached the strongly fortified 
town of Monterey. This was deemed almost impregnable, 
on account of the mountains and ravines which surrounded 
it, but it was taken after a fight of four days, in which the 
Americans made their way through the walls and over the 
roofs of the houses. The city surrendered on the 24th. 

Battle of Buena Vista. — In the succeeding months Tay- 
lor's force was much reduced, many of his men being with- 
drawn to reinforce General Scott. Santa Anna, the Mexican 
general, took advantage of the opportunity, and marched 
upon him with a force of twenty thousand men, four times 
his number. Taylor was stationed at Buena Vista, a nar- 
row mountain pass between hills and a ravine, where he 
was attacked on February 23, 1847. Taylor had the ad- 
vantage of position, and held his ground so well that the 
Mexicans were repulsed and retreated with serious loss. 
This ended the war in that section of the country. 



324 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

New Mexico and California. — Meanwhile, General 
Kearny had occupied the province of New Mexico. In June, 
1846, he left Fort Leavenworth, marched a thousand miles 
through a hostile country to Santa Fe, and from there set 
out for California. He was too late for the latter country. 
It was already occupied by Americans. Colonel Doniphon, 
whom Kearny sent south, defeated the Mexicans at Chi- 
huahua, and thence made a long march to join General 
Wool at Saltillo. 

Captain John C. Fremont had been sent several years 
before on an exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains. 
He reached California in 1844, and in the winter of 1845- 
46 was engaged in surveying a route to Oregon. Word 
came to him that the Mexican commandant proposed to 
expel the American settlers from California, and he hurried 
to their rescue, though not aware that the countries were at 
war. Several conflicts took place, and by the aid of the 
fleet, and of General Kearny, who joined him in the last 
battle, the whole country was conquered. 

General Scott's Campaign. — The 
most important campaign of the war 
was intrusted to General Scott, the 
hero of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane 
in 1814. His plan was to land at Vera 
Cru^ and march thence to the City of 
Mexico. Landing his army on the 
coast near Vera Cruz, he attacked 
that city, which yielded March 27, 
wiNFiEi.n Scott. 1347^ after a four days' bombardment. 
Thence he set out on a two hundred miles' march to the 
Mexican capital, defeating the enemy at Cerro Gordo and 
taking the important city of Puebla. Scott, on approach- 
ing the city of Mexico, had about eleven thousand men. 




POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 



325 



He found the route strongly fortified and guarded by 
thirty thousand men, yet he pushed on almost unchecked. 
The battles of Contreras and Churubusco were fought and 
won, and the city was approached. 

The War Ends. — After a period spent in fruitless negoti- 
ations, the army moved again on September 8. One by 
one the defences surrounding the city were taken. On 
September 13 the most formidable of them all, the strong 
hill fortress of Chapultepec, was taken by storm. With this 




CHAPULTEPEC TO-DAY. 

reverse the defence ended, the army marching next day into 
the city, and hoisting the stars and stripes over the ancient 
palace known as the " Halls of the Montezumas." The 
war was at an end. Throughout its whole course the 
Americans had not been once defeated. In Scott's army 
were several men destined to play a great part in the Civil 
War, among them Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee. 

Result of the "War. — A treaty of peace was signed Feb- 
ruary 2, 1848, at the village of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It was 



326 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

highly advantageous to the United States. Mexico gave up 
her claims upon Texas, and sold to the United States the 
two provinces of New Mexico and California, then occupied 
by American troops, for the sum of fifteen million dollars ; 
this country assuming, in addition, debts due from Mexico 
to United States citizens amounting to about three million 
dollars. In 1853, to settle a dispute about the boundary, 
this country paid Mexico ten million dollars for a tract south 
of New Mexico of forty-five thousand five hundred and 
thirty-five square miles in extent. The latter treaty was 
negotiated by James Gadsden, and the tract has since been 
known as the Gadsden Purchase. In all more than five 
hundred and ninety thousand square miles were added to 
the territory of the United States as a result of the war. 
Including Texas, the additions of territory were more than 
nine hundred and sixty-five thousand square miles. 

The Wilmot Proviso. — Conquest in the war with Mexico 
was fully expected to be followed by the acquisition of ter- 
ritory. Whether this territory should be open to the exten- 
sion of slavery became an important question. Two new 
States were admitted during the Polk administration, Iowa 
in 1846, and Wisconsin in 1848. This made the. number 
of free and slave States equal. But the South knew that 
this equality could not long be maintained, and though the 
new territory was not acquired until 1848, an appropriation 
was asked for its purchase eaiiV in the war. This alarmed 
the anti-slavery members of Congress, who feared it would 
be opened to slavery, and in 1846, David Wilmot, a Demo- 
cratic member from Pennsylvania, offered an amendment 
to the appropriation bill, providing that slavery should be 
prohibited in the territory likely to be acquired from Mexico. 

This amendment, which became famous as the " Wilmot 
Proviso," excited a heated debate in Congress. It aroused 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 



327 



passionate feeling in both parties. It was defeated by a 
small majority, but is of historical importance as an inci- 
dent in the slavery contest, which was soon to become so 
active. The growing anti-slavery sentiment in the North 
was now amply represented in Congress, and was to become 
the leading feature in legislation for the next fifteen years. 

The Sub-Treasury System. — The system of government 
treasuries, established in the Van Buren administration, had 
been abolished by the Whigs in 1841, and the government 
had again been forced to deposit its funds in private banks. 
In 1846 a new and improved sub-treasury system was 
adopted. This system is still in force. In the same year 
a new tariff bill was passed, reducing the duties. It was 
based on the principle of tariff for revenue only, and con- 
tinued in effect until 1861. 

Gold in California. — The new country purchased from 
Mexico proved to be immensely more valuable than any 




San Francisco in 1848. 

one had dreamed. It contained vast stores of gold and 
silver, of which the Spaniards, during their period of oc- 
cupancy, had found little trace. The Americans were not 
long in making the discovery. Just before the treaty of 
peace was signed (January, 1848) a workman engaged in 



328 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

digging a mill-race in the Sacramento Valley discovered in its 
gravel deposits shining particles of gold. The news spread 
rapidly. The search was extended far around, and gold 
was found to be abundant. " Gold was everywhere, — in 
the soil, in the river sand, in the mountain rock." San 
Francisco at that time contained about four hundred inhab- 
itants. When the news reached this town it was deserted, 
the excited populace starting in haste for the mines. Only 
one thought existed in California, to dig a fortune from the 
gold-strewn soil. 

The " Gold Fever." — When tidings of the discovery 
reached the East a rapid emigration to California began. 
From all parts of the United States and from Europe men 
hastened to the golden fields. Some crossed the continent, 
some made their way across the Isthmus of Panama, some 
sailed around Cape Horn. Many died on the Isthmus route. 
Many perished in the long journey over the plains, where 
the line of march was indicated by the skeletons of ani- 
mals. But thousands reached California, whose population 
rapidly increased. The growth of San Francisco was a 
marvel. In a short time its population rose to twenty 
thousand, while a far greater number had flocked to the 
mining region. 

The Vigilance Committees. — Bad men as well as good 
sought the land of gold. Of those that settled in San Fran- 
cisco, many sought to grow rich by robbing the miners 
through gambling and other devices. The town swarmed 
with reckless and lawless adventurers. Thieves and repro- 
bates abounded. The trouble soon grew so serious that the 
respectable people were obliged to take the law into their 
own hands. They formed themselves into what were called 
" vigilance committees," for the purpose of suppressing 
crime. The justice administered was rude but prompt. 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 329 

Villains were hung with little ceremony, and the community 
soon became law-abiding. 

The Progress of California. — The people of California 
applied in 1849 for admission to the Union, under a consti- 
tution that prohibited slavery. Admission was granted in 
1850. Within seven years from the discovery of gold nearly 
five hundred million dollars' worth had been obtained. As 
the gold to be had from the sands gave out, and costly oper- 
ations upon the rocks were required, many men turned their 
attention to agriculture, and found in the grain- fields, vine- 
yards, and orchards a richer source of wealth than in the 
mines. To-day California is one of the most productive 
States in the Union. 

The Free-Soil Party. — The succeeding Presidential elec- 
tion found a new party in the field. The failure of the Wil- 
mot Proviso had alarmed the opponents of the extension 
of slavery, and what was called the " Free-Soil" party arose. 
It declared for " free soil for a free people." It did not 
propose to interfere with slavery in existing States, but 
opposed its establishment in the Territories and new States. 

The Election of 1848. — The Free-Soil party nominated 
Martin Van Buren for President and Charles Francis 
Adams for Vice-President. The Democratic party, having 
declared that Congress had no power to interfere with 
slavery, nominated Lewis Cass and William D. Butler, 
The Whigs avoided the slavery dispute, and chose as their 
candidate the popular hero of the Mexican War, General 
Zachary Taylor. For Vice-President Millard Fillmore was 
nominated. 

General Taylor proved to be the successful candidate. 
He received one hundred and sixty-three votes to one hun- 
dred and twenty-seven for Cass. Van Buren received no 
electoral votes. 




330 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

2. Ube Xla^lor' ant) jfillmore' H&ministration6. 

The Slavery Problem. — With the new administration 
came in new and important questions. These were based 
on the controversy concerning the 
extension of slavery into the terri- 
tory acquired from Mexico, which 
had been started by the Wilmot 
Proviso and still largely occupied 
men's minds. Texas claimed that 
her western boundary followed the 
Rio Grande to its source. This took 
in territory which had never been 
l)art of Texas, but the claim was 

Zachary TAYIX)R. 

strongly pushed, and was widely 
supported in the South. Should California be admitted 
as a free State ? If New Mexico and Utah were formed 
into Territories, should slavery exist within their borders ? 

' Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784, his parents soon 
after removing to Kentucky. He received little education, and worked 
hard till the age of twenty-four, when he obtained an appointment in 
the army as lieutenant. He served in the War of 1812 and the Black 
Hawk and Seminole Wars, rising in rank till he became a major-gen- 
eral. He gained a high reputation in the Mexican War, energy and 
readiness winning him the title of " Old Rough and Ready." He was 
opposed by many Whigs as a slave-holder (though he did not favor the 
extension of slavery) and as one who knew nothing of civil affairs. Yel 
he filled the Presidential office acceptably, dying in office July 9, 1850. 

^ Millard Fillmore was born in New York in 1800. He taught 
school, practised law, and became a member of the New York assem- 
bly and of Congress. When nominated for Vice-President he was 
comptroller of the State of New York. He was esteemed for ability 
and integrity, but lost popularity in the North from signing the Fugi- 
tive Slave bill. He was nominated for the Presidency by the American 
party in 1856, and died in 1874. 



THE TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS. 331 

The South demanded a more efficient law for the return 
of runaway slaves to their owners. The North complained 
that the slave-trade was permitted within the city of Wash- 
ington. In truth, all the leading political problems of the 
day had to do with slavery. 

The Compromise of 1850. — These questions gave rise to 
proIonge.d and bitter debates. Threats of secession were 
made on both sides. Moderate men hoped for some satis- 
factory settlement, and Henry Clay, who, thirty years before, 
had quieted the slavery agitation by the Missouri Compro- 
mise, now came forward with a new compromise measure, 
in which the demands of the two sides were balanced 
against each other. 

This compromise, which became known as the " Omnibus 
Bill," from the various measures it carried, embraced the 
following provisions : 

1. California should be admitted as a free State. 

2. New Mexico and Utah should be formed into Terri- 
tories, and the question of the admission of slavery be left 
for their people to decide. 

3. Texas should give up part of the territory it claimed, 
and be paid ten million dollars as a recompense. 

4. The slave-trade should be prohibited in the District 
of Columbia. 

5. A stringent law for the return of fugitive slaves to 
their masters should be enacted. 

This bill could not be enacted as a whole, but its different 

sections were taken up and passed separately. The new 

laws were received by many with satisfaction, in the belief 

that they would bring the dispute about slavery to an 

end. But when an effort was made to enforce the new 

Fugitive Slave Law, it gave rise to much opposition in the 

North. 

22 



332 



THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 



The Fug-itive Slave Law. — The opposition to this law- 
arose largely from the stringency of its provisions. The 
fugitive when arrested was not permitted to testify in his 
own behalf or to claim trial by jury. All persons were 
required to assist the United States marshal w^hen called 
upon for aid. To assist a fugitive to escape was an offence 
punishable by fine and imprisonment. 

In the last two respects the law failed. Few persons in 
the North would aid in an arrest. Many aided in the escape 
of slaves. This w^as done by secret methods which came to 
be known as the " Underground Railroad." Many hun- 
dreds of slaves were helped to make their escape to Canada. 
Slaves w^ho had been seized were rescued. The attempt at 
capture gave rise in some localities to 
riots. The law did much to add to 
the strength of the anti-slavery party, 
and many States passed " Personal 
Liberty Laws," designed to obstruct 
the operation of the Fugitive Slave 
Law.^ 

Death of the President. — President 
Taylor survived his election only a 
little over a year. The heat of the 
4th of July, 1850, brought on a fever 
from which he died on the 9th. Vice- 
President Fillmore succeeded him. The Whigs had been 
particularly unfortunate in their Presidents. They had 




Millard Fillmore. 



' In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe published a story of slave life in 
the South, called "Uncle Tom's Cabin," which created an immense 
sensation, over two hundred thousand copies being sold within a year. 
It added greatly to the strength of the anti-slavery sentiment in the 
North. It was read all over Europe, and has been translated into 
more than twenty different languages. See page 490-92. 



THE TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS. 333 

elected only two, and both these had died after a brief 
period of service. 

Other Deaths. — The period of the present administra- 
tion was marked by the death of several of America's 
greatest statesmen. Calhoun died a short time before the 
President. Clay and Webster passed away in 1852. New 
men were coming forward to take their places in Congress, 
including Sumner, Douglas, Lincoln, Davis, and others who 
were soon to become prominent in public affairs.^ 

Progress of the Country. — Little of political interest took 
place during Fillmore's term. Compromise had for the 
time harmonized Congress, Meanwhile, the country was 
rapidly growing and developing. Railroads were extending 
steadily westward, telegraph wires were covering the coun- 
try like a net-work, manufactures were rapidly increasing, 
immigrants were pouring into the country, population was 
spreading widely over the West. 

It was a period also of inventive activity. The sewing- 
machine had been invented by Elias Howe in 1846, but it 
was not until 1854 that he established his claim to the in- 
vention and reaped the well-earned benefit. In 1844 was 
patented the Goodyear india-rubber process, one of the 
most useful of American inventions. 

In 1851 an important postal reform was made, postage on 
letters being reduced to three cents per half-ounce for all 
parts of the country except the extreme West. In 1849 a 
new department, called the Department of the Interior, was 
added to the government. To its care were given all matters 



^ In 1851 a party of filibusters, as they were called, invaded Cuba, 
with the hope of conquering that island and annexing it to the United 
States. They were defeated, and Lopez, their leader, being captured, 
was executed at Havana. 



334 



THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 



connected with internal affairs, such as the Public Lands, 
Pensions, Census, Education, and the Indians. 

The Election of 1852.— The election of 1852 brought the 
same parties into the field as in 1848, the Democratic, the 
Whig, and the Free-Soil. The Whigs nominated Winfield 
Scott, hoping for success from his war record. The Dem- 
ocrats, after a long contest, nominated Franklin Pierce, 
of New Hampshire. The Free-Soilers nominated John P. 
Hale, also from New Hampshire. They obtained no elec- 
toral votes. Scott obtained but forty-two. Pierce obtained 
two hundred and fifty-four, and was elected President. 
William R. King was elected Vice-President. 



3. ipierce's H^ministration. 

The Gadsden Purchase. — On the 4th of March, 1853, 
Franklin Pierce ^ was inaugurated President of the United 
States. His administration was des- 
tined to be full of trouble. A boundary 
dispute with Mexico was the first diffi- 
culty. It was settled, as already stated, 
by the purchase, for ten million dol- 
lars, of the tract of land since known as 
the Gadsden Purchase. 

Extension of Slavery. — But the 
principal difficulty arose from the de- 
sire of the South to extend the area 
open to slavery. The admission of 
California had given the free States a 
preponderance in Congress. The Territories made from the 
Mexican Purchase were open to slavery, but were not likely 




Franklin Pierce. 



' Franklin Pierce was born in New Hampshire in 1804, studied law 
and was admitted to the bar in 1827, served in the House of Repre- 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 335 

to become States for years. The Territories made from the 
Louisiana Purchase were closed against slavery by the Mis- 
souri Compromise, and their admission as States would give 
the free States a considerable preponderance. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — In 1854 a significant step 
was taken. Stephen A. Douglas, a Democratic Senator 
from Illinois, introduced a bill for the organization of two 
new Territories from the Louisiana Purchase, west of Mis- 
souri and Iowa. Both of these lay north of the parallel of 
36° 30', and therefore, by the Missouri Compromise, could 
not be made slave States. But in this bill it was proposed 
that the new Territories should be open to slavery if their 
inhabitants desired it. This doctrine of the rights of settlers 
became known as " squatter sovereignty," the early settlers 
being often called squatters. 

The bill created much excitement. Northern members 
said that it was a breach of faith. It was, however, passed 
and signed by the President. It practically repealed the 
Missouri Compromise, and opened the way for the rapidly 
coming conflict between the forces of freedom and slavery. 

Results of the Bill. — The results of this measure were 
different from what either party expected. The new bill 
divided what was formerly Nebraska Territory into two 
Territories, the northern being still called Nebraska, the 
southern being named Kansas. It was no sooner signed 
than the abolition party at the North took steps to defeat 
its purpose by sending settlers of their own political faith 
into Kansas. The Southern party did the same, and for a 

sentatives from 1833 to 1835, and in the United States Senate from 
1837 to 1843. He enlisted as a volunteer on the outbreak of the Mexi- 
can War, but soon gained the rank of colonel, and later that of briga- 
dier-general. In politics he was a zealous pro-slavery Democrat, but 
espoused the national cause in the Civil War. He died in 1869. 



336 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

time there was an active flow of pro-slavery and anti-slavery 
settlers into the Territory. 

The Fight for Kansas. — This soon led to its natural 
result, from the close contact of settlers bitterly hostile to 
each other. The pro-slavery settlers began to build a town 
named Atchison, near the Missouri border. The anti- 
slavery settlers started the town of Lawrence, farther to 
the west. Each party organized a government of its own, 
and neither acknowledged that of the other. 

The hostile feeling that prevailed soon led to blows. 
Fights took place and blood was shed. The pro-slavery 
forces attacked and plundered Lawrence. In return for 
this attack a party of anti-slavery men, led by an old man 
named John Brown, assailed and killed several of their 
opponents, crossed into Missouri, freed a number of slaveS; 
destroyed considerable property, and shot one of the slave- 
owners. 

The End of the Contest. — A virtual state of war thus 
existed, and fighting went on for three years, from 1855 to 
1858. But the Northern settlers poured in much more 
rapidly than those from the South, and in the end won the 
victory by force of numbers. All hope of making Kansas 
a slave State was given up, and it was admitted to the 
Union as a free State in 1861. 

The Assault on Sumner. — The quarrel in Kansas was 
reflected in the halls of Congress, where a state of bitter 
hostility existed between the two parties. It gave rise in 
1856 to an act of violence. On May 19 and 20, Charles 
Sumner, a Senator from Massachusetts, made a vigorous 
speech on Kansas affairs, in which he spoke severely of one 
of the Senators from South Carolina, Two days afterward 
Preston S, Brooks, a Representative from that State, and 
nephew of the Senator attacked, came into the Senate- 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 337 

chamber after adjournment and made a brutal assault on 
Sumner, who was seated at his desk. He beat him over 
the head with a heavy cane, injuring him so severely that 
it was four years before he was able to resume his 
seat.^ 

Hostile Feeling. — Brooks was censured by Congress, 
and fined by a Washington court. He at once resigned, 
but was immediately re-elected, only six votes being cast 
against him. This action added greatly to the hostile feel- 
ing between the two parties in Congress, a feeling which 
was reflected in the two sections of the country. There 
was as yet no expectation of war, but the irritation was 
growing great. 

The American Party. — Slavery w^s not the only subject 
on which partisan feeling existed. Immigration had become 
so great as to give rise to alarm, and the ease with which 
the naturalization laws were evaded caused irritatiop. Irish 
and other immigrants were being made citizens and elected 
to official positions soon after landing on our shores. As a 
result, a movement began in favor of restricting the suffrage 
to native Americans, or giving it to foreigners only after long 
residence. 

From this feeling there arose a secret political society, 
whose members, when asked any questions about it, replied, 
" I don't know." From this it became known as the '' Know- 
Nothing" party. It grew rapidly, and took a position in 

^ Charles Sumner was born at Boston in 1811. He graduated from 
Harvard University, studied law, and in 1850 became a United States 
Senator, remaining in the Senate till his death in 1874. He was a 
prominent leader in the Free-Soil party and one of the founders of the 
Republican party. In the new school of statesmen Sumner occupied 
one of the highest positions, and was widely esteemed for the upright- 
ness of his character. 



338 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

politics as the American party. It soon died away, how- 
ever, and disappeared after the election of 1856. 

The Republican Party. — The country was in no condi- 
tion for side issues in politics while the slavery question 
was so prominent in men's minds. The anti-slavery feel- 
ing was rapidly growing in the North, and drawing into its 
ranks many members of the Free-Soil, Whig, American, and 
Democratic parties. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska 
bill greatly strengthened this feeling, and in the succeeding 
election the opponents of slavery extension gained a major- 
ity in the House of Representatives. 

They were at first known as " Anti-Nebraska men." They 
soon, however, defmitely organized into a party which took 
the name of Republican. Into its ranks came the remnants 
of the Whig and Free-Soil parties, and all those who advo- 
cated the prohibition of slavery in the Territories. It did 
not, however, propose to attack slavery where it already 
existed, and it thus failed to absorb into its ranks the ex- 
treme abolitionists. 

The Opening of Japan. — Turning our attention from the 
political situation, we find several events of importance to 
note in this administration. Much the most important of 
these in its results was that relating to Japan. For several 
centuries the ports of that country had been almost com- 
pletely closed to foreign trade. In 1853, Commodore 
Matthew C. Perry visited Japan with a United States fleet. 
He found the Japanese strongly prejudiced against inter- 
course with foreign countries, but by persistence succeeded 
in 1854 in inducing their government to make a treaty 
admitting our ships to trade. 

Other nations had tried this in vain. The Japanese 
strongly dreaded Europeans. But their country once opened, 
they quickly perceived the advantages of the world's com- 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 339 

merce, and hastened to avail themselves of the results of 
Western civilization. So rapidly did Japan now progress, 
that in forty years from Perry's visit it had taken its place 
as one of the prominent nations of the v^^orld. 

"World's Fair in New York. — The first World's Fair out- 
side of France had been held in London in 1851. It was 
known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition. It was followed 
by the American World's Fair, held in New York in 1853. 
This also was held in a building of glass and iron which 
was called the " Crystal Palace." It was of great use in 
teaching the people of this country what valuable products 
the nations of Europe had to show. It also proved that 
the Americans had no superior in labor-saving machinery. 
Their power-looms, printing-presses, sewing-machines, reap- 
ers and mowers, and other machines showed the immense 
advance which this country had made in inventions, and 
how greatly the people had progressed beyond their old 
system of hand work. 

The Election of 1856.^James Buchanan, of Pennsyl- 
vania, and John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, were nomi- 
nated by the Democrats for their candidates in the Presi- 
dential election of 1856. The American party made its 
only Presidential nomination, naming Millard Fillmore, late 
President, and Andrew J. Donelson, of Tennessee. More 
important was the nomination of the new Repubhcan party, 
which held its first convention, and chose for its candidates 
John C. Fremont, of California, and William L. Dayton, of 
New Jersey. 

In the election that followed Buchanan and Brecken- 
ridge were elected, but the new party carried eleven out of 
the fifteen free States, and received nearly as many votes 
as their opponents. The American party carried only the 
State of Maryland. 



340 



THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 




James Buchanan. 



4. Bucbanan's HMninistration. 

A Stormy Administration. — James Buchanan^ took his 
seat as President on March 4, 1857. He succeeded to a 
period of storm and stress. The hos- 
tility between the two sections of the 
country was increasing with dangerous 
rapidity, the elements of coming con- 
flict were everywhere in the air, and 
long-sighted statesmen began to fear 
that the local war in Kansas might be 
followed by general war in the Union. 
Growth of Abolitionism. — The un- 
expected strength of the new Repub- 
lican party alarmed the Southern 
leaders. Evidently abolitionism was rapidly growing.- It 
was discussed everywhere, from pulpit and platform, in 
newspapers and magazines. Many Northerners favored 
concessions to the South to avoid the threatened hostilities, 
and this seeming sympathy made the Southern members of 
Congress more aggressive. Yet when actual war broke out 
most of these seeming sympathizers became strong sup- 
porters of the Union. 

Causes of Sectional Feeling. — The quarrel in Kansas, 
the influence of Mrs. Stowe's " Uncle Tom's Cabin," the 
attack on Sumner, the operation of the Fugitive Slave Law, 
the aggressive attitude of the Southern members of Con- 
gress, the sympathy with Southern Democracy of the Pierce 



^ James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1791. He served in 
Congress from 1820 to 1831, as minister to Russia from 1832 to 1834, 
and as Senator from 1834 to 1845. He was Secretary of State under 
President Polk, and was appointed minister to England by President 
Pierce. He died in 1868. 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 341 

and Buchanan administrations, all added to the strength of 
the anti-slavery party of the North. And a new event nov^r 
came to favor its increase. Two days after the inauguration 
of President Buchanan the Supreme Court of the United 
States rendered a judgment which added greatly to the 
stringency of public feeling. 

The Dred Scott Case. — Dred Scott was a slave whose 
owner lived in Missouri. In 1834 he was taken by his 
master to the free State of Illinois, where they lived for the 
succeeding four years, and then removed into what was 
afterward the State of Minnesota. After their return to 
Missouri Scott was whipped for some fault, and brought 
suit for assault and battery, claiming to be free from his 
long residence on free soil, and asserting that the bringing 
him back to Missouri did not make him a slave. 

This case was tried in several courts, one of which gave 
judgment in Scott's favor. At length it reached the Supreme 
Court of the United States. That body decided that Scott 
was not a citizen and had no right to bring suit. It was 
further decided that slave-owners had a right to take their 
slaves where they pleased, just as they could take any other 
article of property, as a watch or a horse.^ 

This decision startled the North. It opened a new field 
for the extension of slavery. Under it slave-owners might 
dwell in what State or Territory they pleased and keep as 
many slaves with them as they chose. 

The John Brown Raid. — An event of still more startling 
significance happened two years afterward. John Brown, 



1 Chief Justice Taney declared that when the Constitution was 
adopted negroes had long heen regarded as heings of a lower order 
than the whites, "and so far inferior that they had no riglits whicl: 
the white man was bound to respect." 



342 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

of whose leadership in the Kansas trouble we have spoken, 
was an old man who had become fanatical in his abolition 
sentiments. He moved to Kansas in 1855, and was there 
very active in the work of bloodshed. In the summer of 
1859 he made his way to the vicinity of Harper's Ferry, in 
Virginia, moved by the wild purpose of starting an insurrec- 
tion among the slaves. He believed that if they had a 
leader, and promise of freedom, they would rise against 
their masters and start a war against slavery. 

Much brooding over his ideas had made the fanatical old 
man nearly insane. He was brave, but his project was 
hopeless. One night in October, with about twenty fol- 
lowers, whom he had won over to his views, he attacked 
the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, hoping to make 
this a rallying-place for slaves, wiiom he expected to come 
in numbers to his aid. 

Failure of the Raid. — The slaves did not come, the 
arsenal was captured, some of its defenders were killed, 
others made prisoners. Brown was tried by the State of 
Virginia and hanged. Six of his followers were hanged. 
Two only of the band made tlieir escape. This attempt 
found little support in the North, many ardent abolitionists 
looking upon it as an act of madness. In the South it 
aroused fears of the horrors of a negro insurrection, and did 
much to increase the stringency of the situation. At a later 
date John Brown was regarded by many as the pioneer of 
the war, and a song to his memory became popular with 
the Union soldiers. 

New States. — Three new States were admitted to the 
Union during the Buchanan administration, Minnesota in 
1858, Oregon in 1859, and Kansas, in which the anti-slavery 
forces had completely won, in 1861. These were all free 
States, and added to the majority of the North in the Senate, 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 343 

A Business Panic. — In the midst of the threatening situ- 
ation a new trouble came suddenly upon the people. A 
large business house failed in Cincinnati in August, 1857. 
It was a result of over-speculation and too great stimulation 
of business, arising in a measure from the discovery of gold 
in California and the rapid growth of wealth in consequence. 
More railroads had been built than were wanted ; more 
goods were being made than could be sold ; merchants 
had filled their stores with goods bought on credit ; the 
whole business of the country was in an unhealthy condi- 
tion. 

The one failure soon brought others. The host of State 
banks had taken part in the speculative movement, and 
nearly the whole of them failed. Money almost disappeared 
from circulation, for the bank-notes became worthless. 
Thousands of business men were ruined, and multitudes of 
working-men were brought to the verge of beggary. The 
experience of 1837 was repeated, several years passing be- 
fore prosperity returned to the country. 

Ocean Telegraph Cable. — For several years Cyrus W. 
Field, an enterprising citizen of New York, had been actively 
engaged in a project to lay a telegraph line under the At- 
lantic Ocean. In 1846 a message had been sent under the 
Hudson River, on a wire coated with gutta-percha. If this 
could be done for a short, why not for a long distance ? 
The ocean was sounded between Ireland and Newfoundland, 
and found to be nowhere more than two and a half miles 
deep, while its bottom was nearly level. At length, after 
many experiments, a telegraph cable was laid in 1858. A 
few messages were sent across it and then it failed to 
work. But its possibility had been proved, and Mr. Field 
continued his efforts until a successful cable was laid in 
1866. 



544 



THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 



The Lincoln and Douglas Debate. — During the period 
under consideration two citizens of Illinois came into na- 
tional prominence. One of these was Stephen A. Douglas, 
the Democratic Senator from Illinois who had introduced 




. .^ I iiiiim mil III 111 iiiiiii [■iiiinii 
Laying the Atlantic Cable. 



the Kansas-Nebraska bill. He was again a candidate for 
election to the Senate, and was opposed by Abraham Lin- 
coln, the Republican candidate, and a man who had risen 
by force of character from poverty and hard labor to the 
Illinois legislature and the United States Congress. 

Lincoln was remarkably able in debate, and he " took the 
stump" against Douglas, also an able speaker. They went 
from town to town of Illinois, speaking on national politics. 
In this debate Lincoln grew famous. He forced Douglas to 
make statements about the Dred Scott decision which lost 
him favor in the South and ruined his hopes of the Presi- 
dency, though he was elected Senator by a small majority. 
During the debate Lincoln took such a decided stand on 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 345 

the slavery question as to make him tlie favorite of the 
Republican p'arty, and to gain him the Presidency in the 
coming election. 

The Election of 1860. — In 1860 came the most momen- 
tous Presidential election in the history of the United States. 
The feeling of hostility between the two sections of the 
country had grown so intense that open threats of secession 
of the Southern States were made in the event of the elec- 
tion of a Republican President, Yet the Democratic party 
took a step which rendered defeat highly probable. It 
divided into two sections, the strong pro-slavery men 
nominating John C. Breckenridge, the moderate section of 
the party nominating Stephen A. Douglas. The Republi- 
cans chose Abraham Lincoln as their candidate, with 
Hannibal Hamhn, of Maine, for Vice-President. A remnant 
of Whigs and Know-Nothings in the South, calling them- 
selves the Constitutional Union party, nominated John Bell,, 
of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. 

The break among the Democrats assured the election of 
Lincoln. He received one hundred and eighty of the three 
hundred and three electoral votes. Breckenridge received 
seventy-two. Bell thirty-nine, and Douglas twelve. Douglas 
had a very large popular vote, but lost the electoral vote of 
nearly all the Northern States. 

Secession. — The election of Lincoln produced the threat- 
ened effect. As soon as it was known the South Carohna 
Senators and office-holders resigned. A convention was 
called by the legislature of that State, and on December 20 
an ordinance of secession from the Union was passed. 
The example thus given was quickly followed. Before the 
end of January, 1861, five other States had seceded, — 
Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 
Texas followed in February. 



346 'IHE SLAVERY CONTEST. 

Confederate States. — On February 4 delegates from the 
seceding States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and organized 
a new government, under the name of the " Confederate 
States of America." Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, v,^as 
chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, 
Vice-President. In March a constitution was adopted for 
the Confederacy, one of whose sections forbade forever any 
attempt to emancipate the slaves. 

The Government Paralyzed. — This decisive action of 
the South paralyzed the government. Southern leaders 
were leaving Washington, Southern 
officers giving up their commissions, 
materials of war being confiscated, and 
United States forts and arsenals being 
seized by the South, and yet President 
Buchanan took no action. He was 
surrounded by Southern advisers, and 
though he did not believe in the right 
of secession, he did not think he had 
the right to use force to keep any State 

Jkkferson Davis. . 

in the Union. Compromises were 
offered in Congress, a Peace Conference was held in Wash- 
ington, with ex-President John Tyler as chairman, and 
other steps in the direction of conciliation were taken. 
But none of these proved acceptable, and the people anx- 
rously waited until the 4th of March should bring a new 
President and a new policy. 

When that time came the government possessed only 
three fortifications in the South, — Fort Sumter in Charles- 
ton harbor. Fort Pickens at Pensacola, and Key West, all 
the others having been seized. Of these. Fort Sumter was 
vigorously threatened, the Confederates having erected 
earthworks, abundantly mounted with artillery, for its 




BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 347 

reduction, gathered a force of several thousand men, and 
taken possession of the other forts in the harbor. Mean- 
while, President Buchanan did nothing towards its defence 
other than to send an unarmed steamer, the Star of the 
West, with men and supplies. This was fired upon and 
driven back. Thus the year 1861 drifted on toward the 
critical date of March 4, and the coming into office of a 
Republican administration. 

Preservation of the Union. — The problem about to be 
solved by the strong hand of war was not that of the abo- 
lition of slavery. This, the instigating cause of secession, 
had fallen into the background before a greater and more 
vital question, that of the preservation of the Union. 
Should there be a United States or a group of two or 
more republics? Should our strength be converted into 
weakness, our unity into disunion, our harmony into hos- 
tility? This was the problem which the government had 
to face. The Union must and shall be preserved ! Such 
was the sentiment that united the North as no war based 
on the slave question could have united it. President 
Lincoln strongly declared himself in favor of this purpose, 
and the emancipation of the slaves, when it came, was but 
an incident of the war, a measure oi military expediency ; 
though in the end it removed the cause which threatened 
the permanence of American institutions. 

In the following account of the war we speak of North 
and South not in the sense of section arrayed against sec- 
tion, but in that of the nation fighting for its existence, the 
supporters of the old flag combating the forces of dis- 
union. Fortunately for both, the Union of the States was 
preserved, and to-day our united country is the pride of 
American hearts, alike north and south, east and west. 



PART IX. 
THE CIVIL WAR. 



I. Xincoln'3 Bt»mtnistration. 

Lincoln in Office.— The 4th of March, 1861, found Presi^ 
dent Lincoln.^ in Washington, prepared to take the oath of 
office and enter upon the difficult 
duties to which he had been called. 
So dangerous was the situation that 
it was not deemed safe for him to 
travel openly to the capital, and he 
made a secret night journey through 
Maryland, a State which, holding 
slaves, had many sympathizers with 
the Confederacy. 

The President's Policy. — In his 
inaugural address the new President 
indicated clearly his proposed policy. 
" I have no purpose, directly or indirectly," he said, " to in- 
terfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it 

' Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky in 1809, but resided dur- 
ing most of his life in Illinois. His parents were very poor and his 
education was meagre. He worked at boating, store-keeping, survey- 
ing, and other avocations, diligently studying at every opportunity, and 
finally studied law in his spare hours, and gained admission to the bar. 
As a lawyer he rose to distinction. Entering early into politics, he be- 
came a member of the Illinois legislature at twenty-five, and in 1846 
was elected to Congress, where he served one term. His fame as u 
348 




Abraham Linx'oln. 



LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 349 

exists, I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I 
have no inclination to do so." But he declared also that 
it was his purpose " to preserve, protect, and defend" the 
Union of the States. He did not propose to begin war, 
but he, did propose to retake the forts and other national 
property which the Confederacy had seized. 

Lincoln Takes Action. — To avoid war, in the temper of 
the South, was impossible. No inclination was shown to 
yield the national property, and the preparations to attack 
Fort Sumter continued. For a month Lincoln remained 
silent. Run down by office-seekers, and perhaps in hope 
that the hostile attitude of the South would weaken, he 
waited and studied the . situation. On April 8 he acted. 
The governor of South Carolina was notified that men and 
provisions would be sent immediately to Fort Sumter. 

The Assault on Port Sumter. — On hearing this, Jeffer- 
son Davis,^ President of the Confederacy, sent orders to 
General Beauregard, at Charleston, to demand that Fort 
Sumter should be evacuated. If not, he was to open fire 

political orator, and a man of unusual ability, grew, and in 1858 he 
became for a second time a candidate for United States Senator, his 
opponent being Stephen A. Douglas. It was the reputation gained in 
his debate with Douglas that afterward brought him the nomination 
for the Presidency. Lincoln was tall, awkward in manner, and lacking 
in social culture, but possessed of unusual common sense and powers 
of statesmanship. He was re-elected in 1864, and died by assassina- 
tion April 16, 1865. 

^ Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky in 1808, and in 1828 grad- 
uated from the West Point Military Academy. He was elected to Con- 
gress from Mississippi in 1845, served with distinction in the Mexican 
War, and in 1847 entered the United States Senate, where he became 
a strong pro-slavery member. He was Secretary of War under Presi- 
dent Pierce, entered the Senate again under Buchanan, and withdrew 
from that body January 21, 1861, to join the Confederacy. He survived 
the war for many years, dying in 1889. 



350 THE CIVIL WAR. 

on it. His Secretary of State, Robert Toombs, opposed 
this as unwise, saying, " The firing upon that fort will in- 
augurate a civil war greater than any the world has yet 
seen. ... It puts us in the wrong ; it is fatal." 

But the orders were given ; Major Anderson, in command 
at the fort, refused to evacuate ; the assault began. On the 
morning of April 12, 1861, the first shot was fired. For 
thirty-four hours, from nineteen batteries, shot and shell 
were poured upon the walls. Then Major Anderson, being 
nearly out of ammunition and food and the fort in a state 
of ruin, lowered his flag and the firing ceased. Not a man 
had been killed on either side. On the 14th he left the fort 
with his men, carrying their flag with them. 

Result of the Bombardment of Sumter. — President 
Davis, as Toombs had predicted, had committed the coun- 
try decisively to war. Hitherto the general feeling in the 
North had favored peaceful measures. There had been a 
strong desire to meet the South half-way in its demands. 
But as the news of this act of war spread through the 
country a Avide-spread revulsion of feeling took place. The 
United States flag had been fired upon ! The stars and 
stripes had been dishonored ! Excitement and indignation 
everywhere prevailed. A warlike passion suddenly blazed 
out. On all sides the government was called upon to 
avenge the insult to the flag. 

Troops Called Out. — The President did not wait for the 
public demand. The moment the news of the fall of Sum- 
ter reached him he saw clearly that war could not be 
avoided, and on April 15 he issued a proclamation for 
seventy-five thousand troops to serve for three months. 
Few people then foresaw the magnitude of the coming con- 
flint, and it was thought that a strong show of military force 
would quickly bring the threatened war to an end. 



LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 351 

The March to Washington. — The response to the Pres- 
ident's cah was immediate and enthusiastic. Four times as 
many men offered their services as were cahed for. In all 
the States of the North men hastened to the ranks. Hardly 
a day had passed before regiments were on their way to 
Washington. Some companies from Pennsylvania reached 
there within two days. On the 19th of April the Sixth 
Massachusetts Regiment marched through Baltimore. 

Here they were attacked by a mob in the streets with 
stones and pistol-shots. The soldiers returned the fire. 
Several men fell dead on each side. It was the first blood 
shed in the war. It is an interesting coincidence that this 
fight took place on the anniversary of the battle of Lexing- 
ton, when the first blood of the Revolution was shed. 

The South in Arms. — The enthusiasm in the North was 
no greater than that in the South. The firing on Sumter 
had been the clarion of war there also, and thousands 
hastened to enlist. The armory at Harper's Ferry and the 
navy-yard at Norfolk were seized by Virginia militia, that 
State having seceded when Lincoln called for troops. Ar- 
kansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina quickly followed 
with ordinances of secession. On April 17, Davis called for 
privateers to attack the merchant ships of the North. On 
the 19th Lincoln replied by proclaiming a blockade of the 
whole Southern coast, and announcing that privateers would 
be treated as pirates. Only a week had elapsed since the 
firing on Sumter began, and in that brief interval the coun- 
try had sprung from a state of peace into one of war. In 
North and South alike thousands of men had dropped the 
tools of industry and seized the weapons of war, and mus- 
tering and drilling were everywhere the order of the day. 

Action of the Border States. — Four more States, Dela- 
ware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, were classed with 



352 THE CIVIL WAR. 

the slave States, and were more or less in sympathy with 
the secessionists. Scarcely any feeling of this kind existed 
in Delaware, while Maryland was also largely Union in sen- 
timent. Kentucky and Missouri were stronger in Southern 
sympathy, but no active effort was made except in Missouri 
to carry a border. State from the Union. The government 
of Missouri was in sympathy with the Confederacy, but 
failed in its attempt to have an ordinance of secession 
passed and also to maintain a position of armed neutrality. 
Thus the various States took their positions for the coming 
conflict, and the area of the war was clearly defined. 

2. THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH. 

Population of the Sections. — Before proceeding with the 
story of the Civil War it is important to contrast the two 
sections, and seek to deduce their chances of success from 
their comparative strength and advantages. As regards 
population the North was much the stronger. The States 
which adhered to the Union contained twenty-two million 
people, against nine million in the seceding States, of whom 
three million five hundred thousand were slaves. Thus the 
North outnumbered the South in white men four to one. 

Manufactures. — There was also a more complete system 
of railroads in the North, and with it all the manufactories 
of locomotives, cars, and rails. In manufacture generally 
the North had immensely the advantage. The Union States 
were capable of producing everything that could be used in 
the war, while the South was largely destitute of facilities 
of this kind, and could only hope to obtain supplies from 
abroad. 

Agriculture. — As regards food production the North had 
also the advantage. The interests of the South were agri- 
cultural, but cotton and tobacco were the leading products, 



THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH. 353 

while farming, fishing, and herding interests supplied the 
North with an abundance of food. 

Shipping' Interests. — Tlie North was also immensely 
superior in its shipping interests. It traded with all parts 
of the world, and could readily obtain abundant supplies, 
while its workshops enabled it to manufacture at home all 
its munitions of war. The navy at that time was small, and 
most of the ships of war were in the hands of the Confed- 
eracy, but ship-yards were numerous and this deficiency 
could easily be overcome, while there were many merchant 
ships which could readily be converted into war vessels. 

The South on the Defensive. — While the North had 
these signal advantages, the South was not devoid of advan- 
tages. It possessed an immense territory, which offered 
abundant opportunities for successful defensive warfare. 
And the fact that the Confederacy was fighting on its own 
ground greatly reduced the disparity in men. Much larger 
armies are needed to invade than to defend. 

Food, and "War Supplies. — As regards the lack of food.- 
that might be largely overcome by planting grain in place 
of cotton and tobacco. And though munitions of war 
could not be manufactured to any important extent, the 
South possessed a large supply, since most of the guns and 
ammunition of the country had been within the borders of 
the seceding States, and had been seized. 

The Blockade. — The South possessed also a source of 
great wealth in its cotton crop, which would bring all the 
supplies needed if it could be got abroad. But getting it 
abroad was the difficulty. The blockade proclaimed by 
President Lincoln was soon made so effective that it became 
almost impossible to get the cotton upon the sea. There 
were vessels called " blockade-runners" that occasionally 
got into and out of port, but their aid to the South was not 



354 THE CIVIL WAR. 

great. In 1860 the' cotton sent abroad was worth more 
than two hundred milHon dollars. From 1861 to 1865 this 
trade almost disappeared. 

Its Effect. — This stoppage of trade caused a cotton famine 
in England. Hundreds of mills were stopped, and thou- 
sands of men thrown out of work. Great suffering ensued. 
It was hoped by the South that this would induce Great 
Britain to come to its aid. But it did not, though its gov- 
ernment showed hostile feeling to the North. If England 
had recognized Southern independence, France would likely 
have done the same. But neither did so, and the South 
had to fight its battles alone. 

Army Officers. — There was one further advantage pos- 
sessed by the South, — many of the best and most experi- 
enced officers in the army were Southern men, and seceded 
with their States. Among these were Generals Robert E. 
Lee, Joseph E. Johnston, Pierre G. T. Beauregard, and 
Thomas J. Jackson. In this respect the secession of Vir- 
ginia was a serious matter. The ablest three of the Con- 
federate generals, Lee, Johnston, and Jackson, were Vir- 
ginians, and went out with their State. 

Virginia. — The possession of Virginia added immensely 
to the strength of the Confederacy. Its rivers constituted a 
series of strong natural defences of Richmond, which was 
made the Confederate capital on the secession of the State. 
And the possession of the Shenandoah Valley by Con- 
federate armies kept Washington in danger of sudden cap- 
ture, and opened the way for the invasion of Maryland and 
Pennsylvania. Had Virginia remained in the Union, the 
war must have been of much shorter duration. 

Hopes of the Southern Leaders. — The leaders of the 
South had four hopes, none of which were realized. They 
hoped that the North would not fight. They hoped that all 



THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 355 

the slave States would join them. They hoped for useful 
aid from the Democrats of the North. They hoped for 
assistance from England and France. In all these hopes 
they were disappointed. 

Wealth and Credit. — Such was the general state of affairs 
between North and South. The North had one further 
advantage, that of abundant wealth and almost unlimited 
credit. In this respect the South was seriously deficient,, 
and the paper money which it issued lost its value as rapidly 
as did the Continental currency of the Revolution, and in 
the end became worthless. 

The Problem of the War. — As will be seen, the North 
was much the superior in numbers, wealth, and general 
resources. The South had the advantages of being on the 
defensive, of possessing an immense territory, well adapted 
to defence, of having an initial supply of munitions of war 
and a number of able and skilled commanders. But these 
advantages would gradually disappear as the war went on, 
the comparative superiority of the North in wealth and 
resources would steadily increase, and the longer the contest 
continued the greater would grow the Northern prospect of 
success. The hope of the South lay in the defeat and dis- 
heartening of its powerful foe by greater military dash and 
energy. 

3. THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 

Strength and Position of Armies. — The armies of the 
two sides, in the first year of the war, did not differ greatly 
in numbers. In the summer of 1861 there were probably 
about one hundred and eighty thousand Union and one 
hundred and fifty thousand Confederate troops in the 
field. These were gathered on the border-line, the Union 
army reaching along the Potomac from Harper's Ferry 



356 



THE CIVIL WAR. 




United States Flag. 



to the mouth of the river, and thence to Fortress Mon- 
roe the Confederate forces occupying the country south 
of the Potomac. There were opposing forces also 
in West Virginia and Missouri, 

The Contest for Mis- 
souri. — The possession of 
Missouri was of importance 
to both sides. The gover- 
nor had failed in his effort 
to have that State secede, 
while the attempt to keep 
it neutral was defeated by 
Captain Lyon, in command 
at St. Louis, who seized the 
State arsenal and routed 
the hostile militia. A Confederate force quickly gathered 
and a fight for the possession of the State began. It was at 
first favorable to the Confederates, who won battles at Car- 
thage and Wilson's Creek. General Lyon was killed in the 
latter. In September the Confeder- 
ate General Price captured Lexington 
and took a large number of prisoners. 
General Fremont, of California fame, 
now took command, and drove Price 
southward to Springfield. He was 
succeeded by General JIunter, who 
retreated to St. Louis. Finally Gen- 
eral Halleck took command and forced 

Price into Arkansas. This, with some fighting by General 
Grant, who began his notable career in this quarter, ended 
the stru^le for Missouri. That State was saved for the 
LTnion. 

The Struggle in West Virginia. — While Virginia had 




Confederate Flags. 



THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 357 

seceded from the Union, this action was not favored by all 
her inhabitants. The region west of the mountains was 
strongly Union in sentiment, and early in the war a struggle 
took place for its possession. It was occupied in force by 
the Confederates, but they were defeated in several engage- 
ments by General McClellan, and afterward by Genera] 
Rosecrans. These Union victories ended the contest in 
that quarter. The Confederate forces were withdrawn, and 
the region was left in Union hands. In the following year 
the Unionists there met in convention, organized a State 
government, and applied for admission to the Union under 
the title of West Virginia. The new State was admitted in 
1863. It was a serious loss to the " Old Dominion," as it 
comprised nearly two-fifths of its territory and more than 
one-fourth of its population. 

The Two Armies. — It was, however, on the Potomac, in 
front of Washington, that the first battle of leading im- 
portance took place. A large force had gathered for the 
defence of the capital, which was threatened by General 
Beauregard, with a strong Southern army. At Winchester, 
in the Shenandoah Valley, was another Confederate army, 
under General Joseph E. Johnston, which was confronted 
by a Union force, under General Robert Patterson, a veteran 
of the war of 1812. Such was the situation in July, 1861. 

Battle of Bull Run. — President Lincoln, in the first flush 
of hopefulness, had called out volunteers for three months. 
It was now evident that this had been an error. The three 
months had nearly ended and neither side was ready for 
battle. But the people of the North were impatient. They 
looked for a speedy end of the war, and the cry of " On to 
Richmond !" became so strong that the military authorities 
decided that something must be done. 

On July 16, General McDowell crossed into Virginia, with 



358 THE CIVIL WAR. 

a force of over thirty thousand men, and marched toward 
Bull Run/ where General Beauregard lay in a strong posi- 
tion, with a force considerably less than that of his opponent. 
McDowell hoped to overwhelm Beauregard by superior 
strength, trusting to Patterson to prevent Johnston from 
reinforcing him. 

He would probably have succeeded had not Johnston 
eluded Patterson and sent strong reinforcements from Win- 
chester to Bull Run. The battle took place on the 21st and 
was sharply contested. The Confederates were driven back 
until rallied by General T. J. Jackson, who here won his 
title of "Stonewall Jackson." During this critical period 
fresh troops arrived from Winchester, under Kirby Smith, 
and poured in a flank fire on the Union lines. This was 
more than raw troops could endure. A hasty retreat began, 
which in time became a rout, the whole army flying in 
panic disorder. It might have proved disastrous had Beau- 
regard been able to follow up his victory. But his troops, 
too, were raw, and had been too sharply handled to be in 
condition for pursuit. 

The Effect of Bull Run.— The result of this first impor- 
tant battle was momentous. It filled the South with an 
exaggerated hopefulness, which did its cause more harm 
than good. It taught the North that a serious error had 
been made, and that this was to be no " ninety days' cam- 
paign." Dismay and chagrin were followed by determina- 
tion. It was evident that the struggle would be a desperate 
one. Congress hastened to vote a war appropriation of 
five hundred million dollars, and called out an army of five 
hundred thousand men, to be enlisted for three years. 



^ Bull Run IS a small stream about twenty-seven miles from Alex- 
andria, and near Manassas Junction on the railroads leading south. 



THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 359 

General Scott, the aged commander-in-chief, withdrew, and 
General George B. McClellan, whose successful campaign 
in West Virginia had won him reputation, was placed in 
command of all the armies of the United States. 

The Blockade. — While these events were taking place 
on land, efforts were making to render effective the blockade 
of the Southern ports. At the opening of the war the 
United States was almost destitute of ships. But a navy 
was built or leased with such speed that by the end of the 
year there were two hundred and sixty-four ships in com- 
mission. These did some efficient work. Hatteras Inlet, 
North Carolina, was taken by one expedition, Port Royal, 
South Carolina, by another. Some islands on the coast 
were also taken. These places became depots of sup- 
plies for the navy, and aided greatly in maintaining the 
blockade. 

The Mason and Slidell Affair. — Near the end of 1861 
an event of international importance took place. The Con- 
federate States, anxious for aid from Europe, sent out 
envoys who succeeded in reaching Havana. There they 
took passage for England on the British steamer Trent. 
Captain Wilkes, of the steamer San Jacinto, followed the 
Trent, stopped her near the Bahamas, and took from her 
the two Confederate envoys, James M. Mason and John 
Slidell. They were taken to Boston and confined in Fort 
Warren. 

This act was applauded in the North, and Congress 
passed a vote of thanks to Captain Wilkes. But England 
did not like to have the " right of search" exercised toward 
her. She bluntly demanded that the commissioners should 
be given up, and, to enforce her words, sent troops and war- 
supplies to Canada. 

The Envoys Given Up. — The threatened war was 



360 THE CIVIL WAR. 

averted by the action of the President and Secretary of 
State, who declared that the act was not in accordance with 
the previous pohcy of this government regarding the right 
of search, and ordered the release of the prisoners. But a 
hostile feeling against Great Britain prevailed, which grew 
more bitter when Confederate cruisers were allowed to be 
built in English ship-yards and to slip out of English ports. 
The sailing of the Alabama, a privateer which did immense 
damage to American commerce, increased this sentiment 
of hostility. The British government was given plainly to 
understand that the United States would not endure any 
more of this. As a result, no more Confederate cruisers 
were allowed to leave British ports. 

The Work of the Merrimac. — While the United States 
was increasing its fleet and the Confederate States pur- 
chasing cruisers abroad, the latter had not been idle at 
home. In the navy-yard at Norfolk, Virginia, which had 
been seized by Confederate forces, was a United States 
frigate, the Merrimac. This had been sunk, but workmen 
had succeeded in raising it, and had cut down the deck 
and given it a sloping roof, heavily plated with iron. An 
iron prow had been added, for the purpose of ramming 
hostile craft. The Merrimac was destined to make a 
revolution in naval warfare. Vessels had been covered 
with iron before, but they had not been tried in actual 
war. 

On March 8, 1862, this formidable vessel steamed into 
Hampton Roads. The United States had there a fleet of 
five wooden vessels, large and powerful, but, as was proved, 
useless for combat with their iron-clad foe. They poured 
broadsides upon her, but their shot glanced off" from her 
iron sides " hke so many peas." Moving resistlessly on, the 
Merrimac struck the Cumberland with her terrible beak, 



THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 361 

and she sank with all on board.' The Congress was driven 
ashore and forced to surrender. It was now near night, 
and the fate of the other three ships was left until the next 
day. 

Never had there been such an event in naval warfare. 
Consternation filled the North at news of this havoc. 
What was to save our ports from this fearful foe? She 
might steam into New York harbor and bombard the city. 
No one could say what havoc she might perform. 

The Coming of the Monitor. — But the government had 
been preparing for her. It was well known when she 
might be expected, and an ironclad on a new plan, the 
invention of Captain John Ericsson, the eminent Swedish 
engineer, had rapidly been built. This had a low, flat, iron- 
clad deck, rising just above the water. In its centre was a 
strong tower, heavily plated with iron, and capable of re- 
volving. It carried two very heavy guns. The appearance 
of this strange craft was so peculiar that it gained the title 
of " a cheese-box on a raft." 

By vigorous efforts the new vessel was completed in 
time to meet the Merrimac before more destruction could 
be done. The Monitor, as she was named, steamed into 
Hampton Roads during the night of March 8, and was 
ready to meet the Merrimac at the dawn of the next day. 

The Battle of the Ironclads. — Early in the following 
day the Merrimac steamed toward the Minnesota, one of 
the w^ooden fleet. Suddenly she found the Monitor in her 
way, hurling at her such balls as a naval vessel had never 
before sent. The Monitor's two guns were of enormous 



' As the Cumberland went down the crew continued to work her 
guns until she vanished beneath the water. Her flag was not struck, 
but. continued to float from the mast-head after she had gone down. 



362 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



size, while the balls of the Merrimac glanced harmlessly 
from her deck. 

For four hours that new and strange naval duel went on. 
Time after time the Merrimac sought to sink the Monitor 
witli her iron beak, but lier dwarf-like antagonist glided 




-^SKBB^iP*!^^*?*?*- 



Batti-e of the ^[o^ITOR AND Merriwac. 



away unharmed. Her broadsides were of as little use, 
while the huge balls of the Monitor continued to batter her 
sides with terrible blows. 

In the end the Merrimac withdrew, baffled though not 
disabled, and made her way back into Norfolk harbor. 
She never left it again. Repairs were necessary, and 
before they were completed the Confederates abandoned 
Norfolk and destroyed their powerful iron-clad champion. 
That one battle changed the conditions of naval warfare 
throughout the world. With it the day of the wooden war- 
vessel came to an end. 



THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 



363 



4. THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 

Results of the "War in 1861. — During the first year of 
the Civil War there had been no well-defined plan. The 
most important engagement had 
been won by the Confederate forces, 
yet the advantage lay with the 
North. Mis- 




Battle-Fields of Kentucky and Tennessee. 

and West Virginia gained for the Union. Fort Pickens and 
Fort Monroe, on the coast, had been secured and other 
points taken. The defeat at Bull Run had wakened the 
North from its dream of an easy conquest and roused it to 
the most strenuous exertions. The two sides had been 
getting a grasp of the situation. They now first began to 
see the magnitude of the task before them. 

Plans for 1862. — The campaign of 1862 was entered 
upon by the North with definite objects in view. 

24 



364 THE CIVIL WAR. 

One of these was the capture of Richmond. 

A second was the rescue of Kentucky from its invaders 
and the invasion of Tennessee. 

A third was the opening and control of the Mississippi, 
and the cutting off of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas from 
the rest of the Confederacy. 

A fourth was an efficient blockade of the Southern ports. 

By the end of the year all of these, except the first, was 
in some measure accomplished. 

The Confederates in Kentucky. — In September, 1861, 
General Polk entered Kentucky with a force of fifteen thou- 
sand men, and took position at Columbus, whence he 
threatened Paducah, an important point at the junction of 
the Tennessee River with the Ohio. Another Confederate 
army, under General Zollicoffer, invaded Kentucky in the 
southeast. These invasions had one unexpected result. 
The legislature, which was wavering, at once voted, by a 
heavy majority, to remain in the Union. 

General Grant's Movements. — General Ulysses S. Grant,' 
the coming leader of the Union armies, had been defeated 
in his first engagement at Belmont, Missouri. Immediately 
afterward he crossed to Kentucky and took possession of 

' General Grant was born in Ohio in 1822. He was named Hiram 
Ulysses, but on his entry to West Point his name was wrongly regis- 
tered, he being styled Ulysses Simpson, the latter his mother's family 
name. As he could not get the mistake remedied, he accepted the 
new name. His first service was in the Mexican War, where he be- 
haved gallantly and gained promotion. He then retired to private 
business life, in which he was not very successful. On the outbreak 
of the Civil War he was appointed captain of a company of volunteers, 
and was soon after made colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois Regiment. 
Shortly afterward he was commissioned brigadier-general, and was 
made major-general for his capture of Fort Donelson. * The remainder 
of his biography is part of the history of the war and the country. 



THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 365 

Paducah, thus forestalling Polk, and getting control of the 
mouths of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, two large 
and important streams. An important problem now lay 
before the Union leaders. The Confederates had built 
forts on these two streams, named Fort Henry and Fort 
Donelson, within the borders of Tennessee. They had 
also fortified Island No. 10, on the Mississippi south of 
Columbus. 

Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — Early in Feb- 
ruary, 1862, General Grant advanced against Fort Henry, 
Commodore Foote, with a flotilla of iron-clad gun-boats, 
moving up the Tennessee to assist him. On the 6th the 
place was attacked by the fleet. An hour's bombardment 
sufficed. The fort surrendered, and the garrison fled to 
Fort Donelson before Grant and his army had arrived. 

Grant now marched upon Fort Donelson, while the fleet 
steamed back to the Ohio and came up the Cumberland 
to his aid. This fort was more vigorously defended. The 
fight continued for three days, the fleet was repulsed, and 
its commodore seriously wounded. The Confederates now 
attempted to cut their way through Grant's investing lines, 
but were driven back and part of their works taken. On 
February 16 an assault was about to be made in force, when 
the fort surrendered, with its garrison of fifteen thousand 
men.^ This was the first signal Federal victory of the war. 
It established the Union army firmly in Tennessee. 

^ The commander of the fort wrote to General Grant, asking what 
terms could be made. The reply was, " No terms except an uncondi- 
tional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move 
immediately upon your works." This answer did much to enhance 
Grant's reputation. His initials, U. S., were said to stand for " Uncon- 
ditional Surrender." From this time forward he was one of the leading 
figures in the war. 



366 THE CIVIL WAR. 

Island No. 10. — One important effect of Grant's victory 
was to compel General Polk to evacuate Columbus, a post 
which had been claimed to be impregnable. The garrison 
fell back to the fortifications at Island No, 10, which soon 
after were attacked by Commodore Foote with his fleet of 
gun-boats. After a three weeks' bombardment, General 
Pope crossed the river, took the batteries on the bank, and 
prepared to attack those on the island.^ Finding their 
position untenable, the garrison, seven thousand strong, 
surrendered on April 8. 

Buell's Advance. — Grant's army was afterward known 
as the Army of the Tennessee. General Buell, with what 
became known as the Army of the Cumberland, advanced 
into middle Kentucky, where his left wing, under General 
Thomas, defeated the Confederates near Mill Spring in Jan- 
uary, 1862. Soon afterward the fortified post at Bowling 
Green was evacuated and the Confederate invasion of Ken- 
tucky came to an end. 

Occupation of Tennessee. — Though the State of Ten- 
nessee had seceded, a large section of it remained strongly 
Unionist in sentiment. This was the mountain district in 
the east, in which there had been found little use for slaves. 
The Union successes above mentioned soon led to an occu- 
pation of the State. General Buell advanced and occupied 
Nashville, while the Confederates fell back to Corinth, an 
important railroad centre in the north of Mississippi. Here 

' Pope, with his army, was on the Missouri side of the river. He 
rould not cross in face of the Confederate batteries, so a canal was dug 
twelve miles long across a bend in the river. Part of this was through 
heavy timber, yet the work was finished in nineteen days. Through 
this canal light-draught steamboats were taken below the batteries. 
The two largest gun-boats ran the batteries and protected Pope's cross- 
ing, which was accomplished in the midst of a deluging storm of rain. 



THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 367 

strong Torres were collected, under Generals Albert Sidney 
Johnston and Beauregard. Grant took part in the Union 
advance, and moved his army to Pittsburg Landing, on the 
Tennessee, a short distance north of Corinth. Here he 
awaited the arrival of Buell with reinforcements. 

The Battle of Shiloh. — Events proved that Grant had 
taken a dangerous position. On April 6, Johnston attacked 
him in force, hoping to defeat him before Buell could arrive. 
At break of day the Confederate forces suddenly marched 
out of the woods and fell upon the Union lines with all the 
Southern dash and vigor. The Federal forces, though hold- 
ing their ground with stern determination, were gradually 
pushed back. For twelve hours the fight continued. Then 
Grant gathered the remnants of his regiments on the river 
bank for a final stand. Here the tide of battle was stayed, 
the gun-boats in the stream aiding the artillery fire of the 
army. It was now nightfall, and the advance of Buell's 
army had reached the opposite side of the stream. The 
Confederates fell back with the fruits of their success, three 
thousand prisoners, thirty flags, and the stores taken in the 
Union camp. But they had met with a severe loss in 
the death of General Johnston, one of their ablest com- 
manders. 

On the next day, April 7, the tide of battle turned. With 
Buell's fresh troops Grant pushed back the battle-weary 
foe, and after six hours' desperate fighting the Confederates 
were obliged to retreat. They withdrew to the intrench- 
ments at Corinth. 

In this great battle nearly one hundred thousand men 
were engaged, and more than twenty thousand were killed 
and wounded. It was one of the great conflicts of the war, 
and fully proved the valor and determination of the com- 
batants on both sides. General Halleck, who had been 



368 THE CIVIL WAR. 

appointed commander-in-chief in the West, slowly followed 
the Confederates, and on May 30, Beauregard, finding him- 
self outnumbered, evacuated Corinth. Thus the Unionists 
established themselves in Mississippi. 

Memphis Taken. — The capture of Island No. 10 took 
place on the day succeeding the battle of Shiloh. The Union 
gun-boats quickly made their way farther down the river, 
and on May 10 met and defeated the Confederate iron-clad 
fleet. On the evacuation of Corinth, Fort Pillov/, a strong- 
hold lower down the stream, was abandoned, and the gun- 
boat fleet steamed south to Memphis, where the Confederate 
flotilla was destroyed and the city seized. 

Capture of New Orleans. — The effort to gain control of 
the Mississippi was not confined to operations in the north. 
An attack was made from the south also. In April, 1862, 
shortly after the battle of Shiloh, a powerful Union fleet, 
under Farragut and Porter, entered the mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi, and fought its way vigorously upward. The river 
was defended with strong forts, fire-rafts, iron chains, and 
an iron-clad fleet. After a heavy bombardment, Farragut 
made a night run past the forts, through a fearful storm of 
shot and shell, attacked and destroyed most of the Confed- 
erate fleet, and moved triumphantly up to New Orleans, 
which was forced to surrender.^ General Benjamin F. But- 
ler, in command of the land forces, took possession of it on 



' Great quantities of cotton, and numbers of ships and steamers, 
were burned at New Orleans to prevent their falling into the hands of 
the Federals. Fifteen thousand bales of cotton, worth one million five 
hundred thousand dollars, were consumed. The docks were burned, 
and about a dozen river steamers, as many ships, several gun-boats, a 
great floating battery, and the immense ram Mississippi were all given 
to the flames. They floated down the river wrapped in fire and threat- 
ening destruction to Farragut's fleet. 



THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 369 

April 28. Farragut now steamed up the river to Memphis, 
running the batteries at Vicksburg.^ 

Operations on the Coast. — The fleet had been equally 
active on the coast. General Burnside captured Roanoke 
Island, and took New-Bern and other ports in North Caro- 
lina. Various ports in Florida and Georgia were taken, and 
Fort Pulaski, which defended the port of Savannah, was 
captured. By the end of 1862 every important point on 
the coast of the Confederacy, except the cities of Charleston, 
Savannah, Mobile, and Wilmington, was held by the Federal 
armies, and the blockade was made very largely effective. 

The Situation in the West. — It will be seen that, early 
in the year 1862, the Union forces had made great progress 
in carrying out the plans of the government. The Confed- 
eracy had lost nearly all the Mississippi, though they held 
the powerful post of Vicksburg and some minor fortified 
points. The blockade of the coast had made great prog- 
ress. Kentucky and Tennessee were held by the Federal 
armies, and the seat of war in the West had been trans- 
ferred to the Gulf States. The progress in this quarter 
had been great ; but there was now to be a change in the 
situation. 

Bragg-'s Advance. — In the late summer of 1862, General 
Bragg, with a strong army, left Chattanooga, a Confederate 

^ David G. Farragut was born in Tennessee in 1801, and entered the 
navy in 1812 as a midshipman, serving through the war of that period. 
He continued in the service, passing through various grades, and was 
captain at the outbreak of the Civil War. He was made rear-admiral 
after his famous victory at New Orleans. At Mobile he won additional 
fame by daringly taking a position in the rigging of his vessel that he 
might see every move of the battle, heedless of the peril of this exposed 
situation. He was made vice-admiral in 1864, and admiral in 1866, 
these two grades being created expressly for him. He died in 1870. 



370 THE CIVIL WAR. 

stronghold on the southeastern border of Tennessee, and 
made a rapid march northward toward Louisville, on the 
Ohio River. General Buell, learning his purpose, marched 
with all haste to prevent it, and reached Louisville a day 
in advance. Bragg now fell back, Buell following with an 
army reinforced to the number of one hundred thousand 
men. A battle was fought at Perryville on October 8. 
During the following night Bragg retreated and escaped 
pursuit. 

• luka and Corinth. — Meanwhile, Rosecrans, in command 
at Corinth, was threatened by a strong Confederate force. 
Two battles were fought, one at luka on September 19, and 
one at Corinth on October 3 and 4. The Confederates fought 
with great courage, but were driven back, and lost heavily 
during a pursuit of forty miles. 

Battle of Murfreesboro'. — On the last day of the year 
was fought one of its most desperate battles. Bragg was 
attacked in winter quarters at Murfreesboro', Tennessee, by 
Rosecrans, who had replaced Buell in command. Bragg 
fought with fiery energy, and for a time had the best of 
the battle, but in the end was driven back. He made a 
second attack two days afterward, but was again unsuccess- 
ful. He now retreated. The battle was a bloody one, more 
than twenty thousand men being killed or wounded. It was 
the last Confederate attempt to regain Kentucky. 

Sherman Repulsed. — While these events were taking 
place. Grant had projected an expedition against Vicksbui^. 
He proposed to advance along the Mississippi Central Rail- 
road, while Sherman was to march down the river, assisted 
by the gun-boats. The effort failed. Van Dorn destroyed 
Grant's depot of supplies at Holly Springs and prevented 
his movement. Sherman attacked the bluffs north of the 
town on December 29, but was defeated with heavy loss. 



THE EAST IN 1862. 371 

Battle of Pea Ridge. — During 1862 two warlike events 
took place west of the Mississippi. One of these was a 
battle at Pea Ridge, Arkansas. General Van Dorn, with 
twenty thousand troops, was met and totally defeated by 
General Curtis at the head of the Union forces. This vir- 
tually ended the war in Missouri and Arkansas.^ 

The Sioux Indian Outbreak. — In the summer of 1862 an 
outbreak of Sioux Indians took place. They had long com- 
plained of ill treatment by the white settlers and government 
officials, and took advantage of the war to invade Minnesota 
and Iowa, where they massacred nearly a thousand men, 
women, and children. They were quickly suppressed, and 
several of their leaders were hanged for murder. 

5. THE EAST IN 1862. 

Affairs in Virginia. — It will be seen from what has been 
said that the Union armies made great progress in the 
West during 1862. The opposite was the case in Virginia. 
Here the Confederates w^on a number of important battles, 
and the attempt to capture Richmond ended in failure and 
disaster. After the defeat at Bull Run, months passed 
without a movement being made. During this period Gen- 
eral McClellan, the new commander-in-chief, was engaged 
in a careful drilling of the army, seeking to make soldiers 
out of untrained recruits. He was not ready to advance 
until the spring of 1862. Then the army was put in march 
for Richmond. 

^ Several thousands of Indians from the Indian Territory had joined 
the Confederate forces in Arkansas, and took part in the battle of Pea 
Ridge. They proved of little use, the roar of the artillery, the sight 
of guns that ran round on wheels, and the fall of trees behind which 
they took shelter, reducing them to a state of panic. They were not 
used to that kind of war. 



372 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



McClellan's Advance. — The overland route was not 
deemed advisable after th« experience at Bull Run, so the 
advance was made by water. McClellan wished to take 
the James River route, but as that would have left Wash- 




McClellan's Campaign. Yorktown to Rkhmond. 

ington in danger of capture by a sudden dash, he took the 
York River route instead, while McDowell led an army 
overland toward Richmond. 

The Siege of Yorktown. — Yorktown, the scene of the 
final event of the Revolution, was that of the first event in 
this march. It was strongly fortified, and General Magruder, 
with fifteen thousand men, detained McClellan's forces here 
for a month. At length, just as heavy siege guns were in 
place and about to open fire, Magruder withdrew, having 
well performed his task of checking the Union advance. 

The Fight at Williamsburg. — Magruder fell back to 
Williamsburg, ten miles distant, where works had been 
built. He was sharply pursued, and a figlit took place there 
on May 5. Both sides claimed the victory, but Magruder 




THE EAST IN 1862. 373 

retreated during the night, and the pursuit was continued 
until Richmond was near at hand, 

A Panic at Richmond. — On the evacuation of Yorktown, 
Norfolk was abandoned, the navy-yard burned, and the 
famous ironclad Merrimac blown up. 
The Monitor and other vessels now 
ascended James River until within 
eight miles of Richmond. The army 
was only seven miles from the city. 
A panic ensued. The Confederate 
Congress adjourned, and the people 
of the city were in a state of conster- 
nation. 

"Waiting for Reinforcements. — An George b. mcclellan. 
immediate attack might perhaps have taken Richmond, but 
it was not made. McClellan dispersed a Confederate force 
in his rear, and then waited for McDowell, who was ap- 
proaching overland. This reinforcement did not reach him. 
Its coming was prevented by a skilful movement of the 
Confederate forces. General Johnston having sent his able 
subordinate, Thomas J. Jackson, — already best known as 
Stonewall Jackson,^ — with a strong force down the Shenan- 
doah Valley to threaten Washington. 

In the Shenandoah Valley. — Jackson's march was rapid 
and effective. The Union forces in the valley retreated 

^ Thomas Jonathan Jackson — who gained his famous nickname of 
" Stonewall" from a remark made during the first battle of Bull Hun, 
"There's Jackson standing like a stone wall" — was born in Virginia in 
1824. He graduated from West Point in 1846, served in the Mexican 
War, and afterward became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Lexing- 
ton, Virginia. He entered the Civil War as a colonel, and captured the 
arsenal at Harper's Ferry in May, 1861. As a subordinate to General 
Lee he proved himself a soldier of remarkable ability. 



374 THE CIVIL WAR. 

hastily before him and crossed the Potomar. Washington 
was in a state of panic. No one knew how many men 
Jackson had. Troops were hurried to the Potomac. Banks 
and Fremont were ordered to cross that stream, and Mc- 
Dowell was stopped in his march toward Richmond and 
ordered from Fredericksburg to the valley. It was now 
Jackson's turn to retreat with all haste, for his foes were 
closing in and he was in serious danger. He did so, burn- 
ing the bridges behind him, and made good his escape. 
He had done his work well, threatened Washington, pre- 
vented McDowell from joining McClellan, and saved Rich- 
mond. 

Battle of Fair Oaks. — In the advance against Richmond 
McClellan had divided his army, the left wing having crossed 
the small stream known as the Chickahominy. At the end 
of May this advanced wing was placed in a dangerous situ- 
ation by a heavy storm, which flooded the stream and con- 
verted its banks into marshes. Taking quick advantage of 
this opportunity, on May 31, Johnston made an impetuous 
attack on the exposed wing, and drove it back toward the 
swollen stream. A serious disaster was prevented by Gen- 
eral Sumner, who succeeded in crossing the stream and 
checking the Confederate advance. On tlie next day the 
battle was renewed, but the Confederates were disheartened 
by the loss of their general, who had been wounded, and 
were driven back with severe loss. 

General Lee in Command. — The wounding of General 
Johnston rendered necessary a new Confederate commander- 
in-chief. General Robert E. Lee ' was cliosen, a man who 



' Robert Edward Lee was born in Virginia in 1807, being the son of 
General Henry Lee, the famous " Light-horse Harry" of the Revolution. 
He graduated from West Point in 1829, served in the Mexican War, and 




THE EAST IN 1862. 375 

was to gain world-wide fame for military genius. He lost 
no time in showing liis activity. General Stuart was sent 
on a cavalry dash around McClellan's 
army, and succeeded in doing serious 
damage, tearing up railroads and de- 
stroying great quantities of supplies. 

The Seven Days' Battle. — Jackson 
soon after returned and joined his 
forces with those of Lee. An instant 
advance was made, and for seven days 
the two armies were locked in deadly 
fight. On June 26 the Union forces 
were repulsed at Mechanicsville, and 
on the 27th at Gaines' Mills. McClellan, his line of supply 
from York River being now cut off, began to withdraw his 
forces toward the James. Day after day Lee continued his 
vigorous assaults, and step by step the Union army drew 
back. July 1 found it strongly posted on the sloping face 
of a plateau at Malvern Hill. Here Lee attacked again and 
was repulsed with heavy loss. McClellan now withdrew to 
the James River without further attack. Doth sides had 
lost heavily, McClellan about sixteen thousand, Lee twenty 
thousand men. Dut the victory rested with Lee, immense 
stores had been taken or destroyed, the siege of Richmond 
was raised, and general discouragement affected the North. 
President Lincoln called for three hundred thousand fresh 
troops. 

New Military Counsels. — General Halleck, who for a 

was made colonel for his courage. He went with his State in its seces- 
sion, was at once made third in rank of the Confederate officers, and 
during the war gained the reputation of being one of the ablest of 
modern commanders. After the war he became president of the 
Washington and Lee University, and died in 1870. 



376 THE CIVIL WAR. 

time had been commander-in-chief of the Western armies, 
was now in Washington, having been given command of all 
the Union armies. General Pope, who had gained fame 
from his capture of Island No. 10, liad been brought from 
the West and placed in command of the forces in Virginia 
south of Washington. Lee, now feeling that Richmond was 
safe from any immediate attack, repeated his former ma- 
noeuvre, and sent Jackson northward against Pope. This 
movement had the hoped-for effect. Washington was 
threatened. Pope's ability to restrain the impetuous Jackson 
was feared. Halleck therefore ordered McClellan to bring 
his army — then known as the Army of the Potomac — north 
by water and join Pope. 

Second Bull Run Battle. — Lee took instant advantage 
of the withdrawal of McClellan, and marched rapidly north 
to join Jackson. Pope's army was struck by the combined 
Confederate forces before McClellan could reach the battle- 
ground, and, after a severe and bloody engagement on the 
old field of Bull Run, was driven back in complete defeat 
(August 28-30). The fighting continued for three days, in 
which the Confederates lost ten thousand, the Unionists 
more than fourteen thousand men. Only the strength of 
the fortifications at Washington, and the arrival of McClel- 
lan's advance, saved the capital from being taken. 

Maryland Invaded. — General Lee was well aware that 
Washington could not be captured. Wasting not a day be- 
fore its works, he made a rapid march northward into Mary- 
land, with the hope of obtaining recruits and possibly of 
inducing that State to join the Confederacy. In these hopes 
he was disappointed. But Pennsylvania lay before him, the 
whole North was in consternation, and quick action was 
necessary on the Federal side. 

All the troops at hand, about eighty-five thousand in nuni- 



THE EAST IN 1862. 



377 



ber, were placed under McClellan's command, and a rapid 
pursuit began. At Harper's Ferry was a Union garrison 
of eleven thou- 
sand men. 
Jackson at- 
tacked that 
post, forced it 
to surrender 
with its garri- 
son, and hur- 
ried back to 
Lee's army 
before McClel- 
lan could come 
up. 

South Moun- 
tain and An- 
tietam. — The 
first conflict 
took place at 
South Moun- 
tain, where the Confederate rear was 
driven from the passes. The two 
armies met on September 16 at An- 
tietam, on the Potomac north of Har- 
per's Ferry. A day's delay in the 

attack enabled Jackson to come up, but Lee still had little 
more than fifty thousand men against the much greater 
force of his opponent. The battle was fought on the 17th. 
It was a severe conflict. The Confederates were on the 
defensive, and on ground of their own choosing. The re- 
sult was that neither side was victorious, though each side 
lost about thirteen thousand men. But Lee's advance to 




Battle-Fields of Virginia, 
Maryland, and Pennsylva- 
nia. 



378 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



the nortli was checked, and he fell back across the 
Potomac. 

McClellan Removed. — McClellan was so slow in follow- 
ing as to cause great dissatisfaction among the people of the 
North. This feeling was shared by the government, and in 
November McClellan was removed from his command and 
replaced by General Burnside, who had proved himself a 
brave and able commander. Unfortunately for him, how- 
ever, he was influenced by the severe criticisms of McClel- 
lan's inactivity and resolved to show himself more active. 

The Battle of Fredericksburg. — He marched hastily to 
Fredericksburg, hoping to reach there in advance of Lee, 




OONKKDEKATE WOHKS AT FREnEKICKSF,TT?n. 

but on his arrival he found the Confederates posted on the 
hills back of the town. It was now December. Heavy 
rains had swollen the Rappahannock River so that it could 
not be crossed without pontoons. These were slow in 
arriving, and by the time they reached the army attack wa? 
almost hopeless. 



THE EAST IN 1862. 379 

But Burnside, feeling that he was expected to fight, 
crossed the river on December 12, and on the following 
day attacked the Confederates on the heights. It was a 
desperate attempt. The slaughter was frightful and the 
effort soon found to be hopeless. From behind a long 
stone wall the Confederate fire mowed down the Federal 
forces in thousands. In the end they were obliged to re- 
treat, after losing more than twelve thousand men. Soon 
after, Burnside was removed from his command, and re- 
placed by General Hooker. 

The Proclamation of Emancipation. — The year's strug- 
gle in Virginia had been almost uniformly disastrous to the 
Union forces. The battle of Antietam came nearest to a 
victory, and President Lincoln took advantage of it to per- 
form an act which he had for some time contemplated. 
On September 22, 1862, a few days after the battle, he 
issued a proclamation, in which he announced that on the 
next New-Year's day all the slaves in territory then in 
arms against the Union should be free.^ 

This proclamation was issued as a war measure, on the 
ground that the slaves were being used to support the 
Confederate cause. From this time forward negroes and 

' In 1861, General Fremont issued a proclamation in Missouri, de« 
daring all slaves freemen. General Hunter in 1862 issued a similar 
proclamation, and mustered a regiment of negroes into the service. 
These actions were disavowed by the President. What to do with 
slaves who fell into Union hands was from the first a problem. Gen- 
eral Benjamin F. Butler solved it. Some slaves who had made their 
way into his camp while at Hampton, Virginia, were demanded by 
their owner under the Fugitive Slave Law. As the slaves said that 
they were to be used in building fortifications, Butler refused to deliver 
them, saying that they were " contraband of war," and put them to 
work himself. From that time forward slaves were known as " con- 
trabands." See page 492. 

25 



380 THE CIVIL WAR. 

fugitive slaves were used in the Union armies, and the 
emancipation of the slaves became one of the purposes of 
the war.* 

6. THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 

The Beginning- of the End. — During the year 1863 the 
high tide of the war of secession was reached. It culmi- 
nated on Independence Day in two momentous events, the 
retreat of Lee from the battle-field of Gettysburg and the 
surrender of Vicksburg to General Grant. These events 
fatally weakened the Confederacy. There were no more 
aggressive movements of Lee's army. From that day it 
fought on the defensive. And the loss of Vicksburg gave 
the Union forces full control of the Mississippi, and cut off 
the three States of Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the 
Confederacy. The 4th of July, 1863, marked the beginning 
of the end. 

Battle of Chancellorsville. — The close of 1862 and spring 
of 1863 formed a period of disaster to the Union armies in 
Virginia. The terrible defeat of Burnside at Fredericksburg 
has been mentioned. General Hooker, who succeeded 
Burnside, did not venture to repeat the attack on Lee's 
works, but tried the effect of a flank movement. Marching 
up the Rappahannock, he crossed that river some distance 
above the town. He had ninety thousand men and Lee 
only forty-five thousand. But Lee did not hesitate to march 
against him, and on May 2 the two armies met in the thickly 

* The proclamation of ernancipalion was followed by the enlistment 
of many negroes into the armies of the North, a measure which was 
opposed by many in the North and drew severe resolutions from the 
Confederate Congress. The negroes proved eager to enlist, and made 
good soldiers. In December, 1863, there were over fifty thousand of 
them under arms, and four times that number before the war ended. 



THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 381 

wooded region of Chancellorsville. The battle was a des- 
perate one. It was decided by a flank attack made by 
Stonewall Jackson, who unexpectedly fell upon and routed 
the Union right wing. But the Confederates suffered a 
severe loss. Jackson was severely wounded, and died of 
pneumonia a few days afterward.^ 

The battle continued during the next day, and ended in 
Hooker recrossing the river. It was the most destructive 
defeat experienced by the Union armies during the war. 
The total loss in killed and wounded was thirty thousand, 
of which Hooker's army lost about seventeen thousand. 

Lee's Advance to Pennsylvania. — The victories of Fred- 
ericksburg and Chancellorsville gave the greatest encourage- 
ment to the South, and there was a wide-spread feeling that 
now was the time to invade the North and win some signal 
success. Washington orBalthnore might be captured, pos- 
sibly Philadelphia or New York. Vast supplies might be 
gained, and perhaps terms of peace dictated from the na- 
tional capital or the great cities of the North. 

Inspired by the vision of such splendid possibilities, Lee 
began a rapid march northward through the Shenandoah 
Valley, crossed the Potomac into Maryland, and advanced 
through that State to Pennsylvania, reaching the small town 
of Gettysburg on the 1st of July. 

March of the Union Army. — The threatening movement 
of Lee, and doubt as to his purpose, threw the Union com- 
manders into a state approaching consternation. To guard 
Washington was the first thought, and a hasty march north 
began, with the mountain ridge that bounds the Shenandoah 



^ Jackson was shot by his own men. He had been reconnoitring 
the Union line, and on his return he and his staff were mistaken for 
Federal cavalry and were fired upon. 



382 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



Valley on the east between the two armies. On the dis- 
covery that Lee was advancing into Pennsylvania, Hooker's 




Plan of thk Battle of Gettysburg. 



army was hastened forward by forced marches to cover 
Harrisburg and Philadelphia. On the march General Hooker 
resigned, on account of differences of opinion with the War 



THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 383 

Depariment. General George G. Meade took command in 
his place. 

The First Day's Battle at Gettysburg. — That a great 
battle was imminent was evident. Events decided where 
it should be fought. The Confederate advance reached 
Gettysburg on July 1, and was there met by an advance 
force of Union cavalry. A fight began. Reinforcements 
were hurried up on both sides and the skirmish became a 
battle. In the end the Federal forces were driven back and 
General Reynolds was killed. Retreating through the town, 
the defeated army took a position along the crest of Cemetery 
Ridge, a range of elevated ground just south of Gettysburg. 
The position was a strong one for defence, and Meade hur- 
ried up the rest of the army by forced marches to secure it. 
All that night regiments and brigades marched up by moon- 
light and took their allotted posts. Rut when morning 
came much of the army was still miles away.^ 

The Second Day's Battle. — Lee's army, which was about 
seventy-three thousand strong, extended along Seminary 
Ridge in a concave line, facing the convex ridge on which 
Meade's army was posted. The lines occupied by the two 
armies were about twelve miles in length. Meade's army 
was about eighty thousand strong, but part of it was still a 
day's march distant, pressing forward with all speed. 

The battle of July 2 was mainly between Sickles's and 
Longstreet's corps, the struggle being largely for the pos- 

^ It is said that mere chance made Gettysburg the field of battle. 
Meade had selected a position at Pipe Creek, fifteen miles to the south- 
east, to make his stand. The movement of cavalry which brought on 
the battle was intended merely to screen his line of march. On the 
other hand, Lee had not proposed to fight except on the defensive, but 
found himself forced to attack his foe or retreat, his line of advance 
being cut off 



384 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



session of two hills, called Round Top and Little Round 
Top. If Longstreet had won these, he would have com- 
manded the Union position and might have defeated the 
army. But he failed to do so. The battle was fierce and 
destructive, but the Federals retained the hills. 




Copytigrfitby underwood and underwooa, N. V. 
A Scene at Gettysburg. 

The Third Day's Battle. — On July 2 the Confederates 
had been successful on their left, where they won a position 
on Gulp's Hill, on the Union right. But they failed to re- 
tain it, being attacked and driven out at daybreak of the 3d. 
Thus the flanking movements on both wings had failed. On 
the 3d, Lee made a desperate attack on the Union centre, 
hoping to break through Meade's army at that point. 

About one o'clock he began a cannonade from one hun- 
dred and fifty pieces of artillery, and for two hours shot 
and shell were poured upon the Union lines. Then Gen- 
eral Pickett, with fifteen thousand men, marched against 
Meade's centre. Across the plain, a mile in width, marched 



THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 



385 



that devoted band, with the steadiness of long discipline. 
A hundred cannon tore gaps in their ranks. Volleys from 
long lines of infantry were poured upon them. No troops 
could endure that terrible slaughter. They fell in hundreds. 
The front reached the Union lines, but only to yield as pris- 
oners of war. The remainder fled from the fatal field. 
The desperate struggle was at an end. In the three days' 
fight Meade had lost twenty-three thousand men, Lee over 
twenty thousand. 

The Retreat. — On July 4, Lee's retreat began. Ills at- 
tempt to invade the North had proved a costly failure. 




Night Scene on the Retreat from Gettysburg. 



And the host of veterans he had lost could never be re- 
placed. He hastened to the Potomac, followed by Meade's 
army. The river was safely crossed and Virginia once 
more reached. Various strategic movements of the two 
armies took pl-ace during the remainder of the year, but 
there were no conflicts of importance. 



386 THE CIVIL WAR. 

Grant's Expedition against Vicksburg. — The opening 
of the Mississippi to the Union fleets was the task under- 
taken by Grant in 1863. The Confederates held the two 
strong posts of Vicksburg and Port Hudson and the stretch 
of river between. Vicksburg was very strongly fortified. 
Sherman had been defeated in a direct attack upon it. 
Grant attempted its capture from the north, but in vain. 
He then took a bold resolve.' Cutting loose from his base 
of supplies, he marched down the west side of the river, 
while the gun-boats and supply-ships ran past the batteries 
through a dreadful storm of shot and shell.^ Crossing the 
river on April 30, he fought no less than five battles with 
the Confederate forces, in all of which he was victorious. 
Finally, General Pemberton shut himself up with his army 
in Vicksburg, and Grant, who had regained his communica- 
tions with the North, and was now sure of supplies, began 
the siege of that city. 

Vicksburg- Taken. — Two attempts were made to take 
Vicksburg by storm, but both failed. A siege followed, 
with mining and countermining. Six weeks ended it. Pem- 
berton's army was suffering for food, and all supplies were 

' Sherman's effort in 1862 had proved that the city could not be 
taken from the north. To capture it, the river must be crossed or 
its rear otherwise gained. But this presented great difticullies, which 
for two months, February and March, Grant was engaged in efforts to 
overcome. He tried by digging canals and deepening cliannels to 
make a route for supj)ly-ships tlirough tlie l^ayous west of the Missis- 
sippi. He also tried to find a passage for gun-boats through the bayous 
on the northeast, that would enable him to reach the rear of Vicks- 
burg from that direction. Bolh plans failed, and nothing remained 
but a daring march regardless of supplies. 

^ The passage of the batteries was a dangerous venlun\ They ex- 
tended for eight miles along the river bank, for which distance the 
gun-boats had to run the gantlet of shot and shell. 



THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 



387 



cut off. On July 4 the garrison was surrendered as priso- 
ners of war. 

In this campaign the Confederates lost ten thousand in 
killed and wounded, thirty-seven thousand in prisoners, and 
immense stores. 
It was still more 
disastrous to 
their cause than 
Gettysburg. On 
the 9th of July, 
Port Hudson, 
which was also 
besieged, surren- 
dered. The Mis- 
sissippi was open 
from its source to 
the Gulf, and within the next five days a steamboat, laden 
with goods, passed downward from St. Louis to New Or- 
leans. 

The Situation in the "West. — The taking of Vicksburg 
virtually ended the war in the West, except in Tennessee. 
It was thenceforth confined to the Atlantic States of the 
Confederacy and to the vicinity of Chattanooga, in South- 
eastern Tennessee, with the exception of one desperate 
battle at Nashville, and some minor engagements,^ 




Grant's Vicksburg Campaign. 



' In July, 1863, General John H. Morgan, a dashing Confederate 
cavalry officer, crossed the Ohio, and made a rapid raid through In- 
diana and Ohio, burning factories, mills, and bridges, tearing up rail- 
roads, and destroying property in great quantities. He was everywhere 
harassed by militia, and was finally overtaken at Parkersburg, on the 
Ohio, where nearly all his men were captured. Morgan w^as taken 
and confined in the penitentiary at Columbus. He escaped four 
months afterward, and made his way in safety to Richmond. 



S88 THE CIVIL WAR. 

Chickamauga. — After the battle of Murfreesboro' Bra^ 
held a strong line in JMiddle Tennessee. Here he was at- 
tacked in late June, 1863, by Rosecrans, who, after a bril- 
liant campaign, forced him to retreat to Chattanooga. This 
position he was obliged to leave in September by the flank- 
ing movements of the Army of the Cumberland, and retired 




Battle of Chickamauga. 



to Lafayette, south of Chickamauga River. Here he was 
reinforced by Longstreet, sent by Lee from Virginia, and 
advanced on the Union army, then stretched out in Chicka- 
mauga Valley over a line forty miles long. Bragg attacked 
the rapidly concentrating army on September 19, and on 
the 20th defeated the right wing and made a vigorous as- 
sault on the left, commanded by General Thomas. That 
able warrior, though attacked by much superior forces, held 
his ground with unyielding stubbornness, and saved the 
army from a severe disaster. He repulsed assault after 
assault, until the sun went down on that eventful day, 
when his ammunition was almost exhausted." At night he 



THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 389 

withdrew to Rossville, under orders received from General 
Rosecrans, and on the following day to Chattanooga. He 
was afterward honored with the title of " The Rock of 
Chickamauga." ^ 

Grant in Command. — Bragg followed up his success by 
seizing Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, which 
overlooked Chattanooga, and enabled him to hold Rose- 
crans in a state of siege. Most of the Federal avenues of 
supply were cut off, and the army was suffering for food. 
At this juncture Rosecrans was replaced in command of 
the Army of the Cumberland by Thomas, and Grant was 
made commander of all the armies west of the Alleghanies. 
Sherman, with the Army of the Tennessee, marched up 
from Vicksburg, and Hooker brought reinforcements from 
Virginia. Both sides were making preparations for a des- 
perate contest. 

Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — The armies 
"met in battle late in November. On the 23d, Thomas seized 
Orchard Knob. On the 24th, Hooker attacked the works 
on Lookout Mountain. His men dashed up the hill, swept 
away its defenders, and took the position with little loss. 
This is famed as the "battle above the clouds," but the 
victory was gained with no severe fighting. 

On the 25th an assault in force was made on Missionary 
Ridge, Sherman and Hooker attacking the flanks and 
Thomas the centre of Bragg's army. The charge was 
irresistible. Up the steep face of the hill swept the whole 

' How long can you hold this pass?" was asked of Colonel George, 
of the Second Minnesota. " Until the regiment is mustered out of 
service," was the brave colonel's reply. Somewhat later, when 
Thomas was in command at Chattanooga, closely besieged and badly 
off for foud, Grant telegraphed him to hold fast till he arrived. " We 
will hold the town till we starve," came back over the wires. 



390 THE CIVIL WAR. 

army, the Confederates were forced from their guns and 
driven back in defeat, and the siege of Cliattanooga was at 
an end. 

The Siege of Knoxville. — One further event needs men- 
tion. Burnside held Knoxville, in East Tennessee, where 
he was besieged by Longstreet, Bragg having weakened his 
army for that purpose. Longstreet attempted to take the 
city by storm on November 29, but was repulsed. On De- 
cember 4 the advance of Sherman's army appeared, and 
Longstreet abandoned the siege. 

7. THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 

Grant Made Commander-in-Chief. — The year 1864 
opened hopefully for the Union armies. The territory of 
the war had been greatly restricted, the South was in great 
want of men and supplies, and the North had at last learned 
who were its ablest commanders. The remarkable mili- 
tary ability of General Grant had become so evident that 
he was made (March 3, 1864) lieutenant-general, a rank 
which had previously been held only by Washington and 
Scott. All the armies of the Union were placed under his 
control, but he made his liead-quarters with the Army of the 
Potomac, which continued under General Meade. Here he 
faced General Lee, the greatest of the Southern leaders. 
He intrusted the movements in the West to the hands of 
General Sherman,^ whose ability had been amply proved. 

* William Tecumseh Sherman was born in Ohio in 1820. He grad- 
uated from West Point in 1840, served in the Seminole War, and left 
the army in 1853, becoming a banker in San Francisco, then a lawyer 
in Kansas, and afterward superintendent of the military school in 
Louisiana. Entering the army when the war broke out, he served as 
colonel in the lirst battle of Bull Run. He was made brigadier-gen- 
eral for gallantry and major-general after Shiloh. After the war he 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 



391 



Opposed to Sherman was the second ablest general of the 

Confederacy, Joseph E. 

Johnston/ 

The Plan of Cam- 
pa i g n. — The plan 
adopted by Grant was 
one of continuous for- 
ward movement of both 
the great armies of the 
Union, Meade and 
Sherman to start simul- 
taneously, and each to 
keep his opponent so 
occupied that Lee and 
Johnston could not help 
each other. For the 
Army of the Potomac 
the overland route to 
Richmond was chosen. 
The crossing of the 
Rapidan River began 
on May 4, and on 
that day General Grant, 
seated on a roadside 
log, wrote his famous 
telegraph message to 
General Sherman, tell- 
ing him to begin his march. From that day both armies 
continued incessantly at work until the end of the war. 

was made lieutenant-general, and in 1869 general of the armies of the 
United States. He retired in 1883, and died in 1891. 

^ Joseph Eggleston Johnston was born in Virginia in 1807. He en- 
tered West Point Academy, graduated in 1829, and served as lieutenant 




Grant's Campaign. Wilderness to Peters- 
burg. 



392 THE CIVIL WAR. 

Grant had an army of one hundred and twenty thousand 
men, nearly double that of Lee, but this great disparity in 
numbers was in a measure equalized by the fact that Lee 
fought in defence, Grant in attack. The Union troops had 
a constant succession of intrenchments to assault. 

A Series of Battles. — The first conflict took place in the 
densely wooded country known as the Wilderness, in which 
the battle of Chancellorsville had been fought. Here the 
two great armies struggled for two days in the forest, with 
terrible slaughter, but victory for neither side. 

Then Grant made a flank movement, and marched to 
Spottsylvania Court-House. Here he found Lee intrenched 
to meet him. Eleven days more (May 8-18) of manoeuvring 
and fighting succeeded ; then Grant, unable to take Lee's 
works, flanked his army again. 

The armies next met on the North Anna River, where 
some more severe fighting took place. Then, by another 
flanking march, Grant moved south to Cold Harbor, on the 
Chickahominy River, and in the vicinity of Richmond. But 
Lee, having the shorter route, had once more outmarched 
his opponent, and his men lay behind strong earthworks. 
Here they were fiercely assailed on the morning of June 3, 
but so great was their advantage of position that the assault 
was a virtual slaughter. The Federal troops fell in thou- 
sands, while the Confederate loss was small. 

Petersburg Besieged. — At the end of this frightful and 
fruitless day's work Grant again withdrew. He now led 

in the Seminole War. In the Mexican War, as lieutenant-colonel, he 
displayed much courage, and was twice severely wounded. Remaining 
in the army till 1861, he entered the Confederate service as major-gen- 
eral, and was made lieutenant-general after the hattle of Fair Oaks. In 
the West he made active but unsuccessful efforts to save Vicksburg. 
After the war he lived in Savannah, where he died in 1891. 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 393 

his army across the James River, and attempted to take 
Petersburg, a railroad centre south of Richmond. Rut 
Lee again, having still the shorter line, reached the ground 
first, and threw up works that could not be taken with- 
out great loss. Grant thereupon built intrenchments also, 
and began a siege of the Confederate works, which were 
extended until they stretched from Petersburg to Rich- 
mond. 

Losses of the Armies. — In this month of incessant 
marching and fighting the losses had been terrible, that of 
the Union armies, from their policy of attack, being much 
the greater. The true numbers are unknown. Some state- 
ments put Grant's loss at forty thousand, Lee's at thirty 
thousand ; others make the Union loss much greater, the 
Confederate loss considerably less. Comparatively, Lee's 
loss was the greater, for he could less afford the slaughter 
of his veteran troops. 

Early's Raid. — Meanwhile, Generals Sigel and Hunter 
had been repulsed in the Shenandoah Valley, and that 
avenue of approach to the north again lay open. Having 
checked Grant's advance, Lee took quick advantage of this 
opportunity, hoping as before to draw off his foes by threat- 
ening Washington. General Early was sent to the valley 
with twenty thousand men. 

Marching swiftly northward, he crossed the Potomac into 
Maryland, met and defeated General Lew Wallace at the 
Monocacy River, and on July 11 appeared before Fort Ste- 
vens, one of the defences of Washington. Had he continued 
to advance the city might have been taken. Rut he gave 
his men a day's rest, and by the end of that time the forts 
were strongly garrisoned and Early was compelled to retreat. 
But on his retreat he sent a party of cavalry to Chambers- 
burg, Pennyslvania, who demanded a ransom of five hun- 



394 THE CIVIL WAR. 

dred thousand dollars. Not obtaining it, they set fire to 
and burned a large part of the town. 

Sheridan's Ride. — Grant now sent General Sheridan,' 
the ablest cavalry officer in his army, to confront Early, drive 
him if possible from the valley, and destroy or carry off all 
its forage, produce, and stock, so that it could not support 
an army again." Sheridan proved himself an abler general 
than Early. lie defeated him at Win- 
chester and Fisher's Hill, and in a 
week reduced his army by one-half. 
On October 19, Early surprised the 
Union army at Cedar Creek, and drove 
it in confusion from the field. Sheridan 
was at Winchester, twenty miles away. 
Hearing the sound of cannon, he 
mounted his horse and rode at full 
philip^eridan. speed for the front. Meeting fugitives 
on the road, he hailed them with the cheering cry, " Turn, 
boys, turn ; we're going back." Reaching the army, he 
re-formed it, attacked the Confederates, who were plunder- 
ing the camp, and defeated them with great slaughter. 
In a month's campaign Sheridan had lost seventeen thou- 

^ Philip Henry Sheridan was born in Ohio in 1831. He graduated 
from West Point in 1853, and served in the West till the outbreak of 
the war. In 1862 he served in Mississippi, and was made major-gen^ 
eral for his bravery at Murfreesboro'. He commanded the cavalry corps 
of the Army of the Potomac in 1864-65. He was made lieutenant-gen- 
eral, succeeding Sherman, in 1869, and was given the rank of general, 
before held only by Grant and Sherman, on his death-bed in 1888. 

* Sheridan destroyed over two thousand barns filled with hay and 
wheat and over seventy mills filled with wheat and flour. He drove 
off over four thousand head of cattle and killed and issued to the 
troops three thousand sheep. War is brutal at its best, and this was 
an example of its necessary brutality. 




THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 395 

sand men. But Early's army was practically destroyed. 
Washington was safe during the remainder of the war. 
The Shenandoah Valley could not again feed an invading 
army. 

The Siegre of Petersburg. — The siege of the works at 
Petersburg continued incessantly till the spring of 1865. 
Only two events in this siege need special mention. A mine 
was dug under a strong Confederate fort in front of Peters- 
burg, and exploded on the morning of July 30. The fort 
and its garrison were hurled into the air. The charge 
through the breach, however, was badly managed, a halt 
being made in the crater caused by the explosion, so that 
the Confederates had time to rally in defence. A torrent 
of shot and shell was poured upon the confused mass of 
men, killing them in multitudes. Such as could escaped, 
but not less than four thousand men were lost in this ill- 
conducted enterprise. 

The second event was the capture of the Weldon Rail- 
road, one of Lee's means of communication with the South. 
He made desperate efforts to recover 
it, but in vain, and Grant's lines were 
extended to this important point. 

Sherman's Advance. — While 
Grant was thus keeping Lee fully 
occupied in the North, Sherman was 
keeping Johnston, who had succeeded 
Bragg after the defeat of the latter at 
Chattanooga, as actively engaged in 
the South. With an army of one hun- william t. sherman. 
dred thousand men he advanced upon Johnston, who, with 
about fifty thousand, was encamped at Dalton, Georgia. The 
route to Atlanta, Sherman's goal, was defended by strong 
Lntrenchments at various points. These Sherman attacked 

26 




896 THE CIVIL WAR. 

in succession, battles being fought at five different points, — 
Dalton, Resaca, Dallas, Lost Mountain, and Kenesaw Moun- 
tain. 

After each battle Sherman made a flanking march, and 
Johnston hastened to a new fortified post to meet him. It 
was in its way a repetition of the Grant and Lee campaign. 
Sherman had but a single railroad to bring his supplies 
and had to weaken his army to defend it. Johnston was 
shrewdly waiting until his opponent had thus become weak 
enough to be safely attacked in the open field. 

Johnston Replaced by Hood. — This slow and sure policy 
of the able Confederate strategist was defeated by the impa- 
tience of the Confederate government. President Davis, 
listening to complaints, and himself dissatisfied, removed 
Johnston at this critical juncture, and replaced him by Gen- 
eral Hood, one of the hardest fighters in the Confederate 
army. 

Capture of Atlanta. — As it proved, caution was just then 
a safer policy than hard fighting. Hood sustained his rep- 
utation by making three desperate attacks upon the Union 
army. He was repulsed with great slaughter. Then Sher- 
man adopted his flanking policy again. Taking in his 
wagons fifteen days' rations, he skirted Atlanta and placed 
his whole army on Hood's line of supplies. Hood was 
obliged to evacuate the city, and on September 2, 1864, 
Sherman took possession of Atlanta, the most important 
workshop and arsenal of the Confederacy. 

Results of the Campaign. — This campaign, which had 
lasted for four months, and had been marked by ten battles 
and numerous smaller engagements, had been attended by 
a loss of thirty thousand men to the Union and still more 
to the Confederate army. The result was very serious to 
the Confederacy. Atlanta and its neighboring towns con- 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 397 

tained the principal mills, foundries, and manufactories from 
which the Confederate armies obtained their supplies of 
powder, cannon, clothing, wagons, and other necessaries. 
All these were now destroyed, and the Confederacy received 
an almost fatal blow. 

Hood Invades Tennessee. — A desperate effort was now 
made to draw Sherman from Atlanta. Hood, with his army 
of forty thousand men, suddenly left his line of defence and 
marched into Tennessee, hoping by cutting off Sherman's 
line of communication and supply to force him to retreat 
from Georgia and transfer the area of the war again into 
Tennessee. 

He was mistaken, Sherman had no thought of abandon- 
ing the ground he had won. On the contrary, he had it in 
view to march through Georgia to the sea, leaving the armies 
in Tennessee to take care of themselves. Georgia, the gran- 
ary of the Confederacy, would atford him abundant supplies. 
The destruction of produce as he passed would enormously 
deplete the Confederate stock of food. The march of Hood 
from his front, therefore, was precisely what he desired.^ 

Hood in Tennessee. — General Thomas was in command 
at Nashville. Toward this city Hood swept onward with 
his veteran army. Schofield opposed him at Franklin. 
Here a severe battle took place, in which Hood lost five 
generals and over six thousand men. Schofield then drew 
back to Nashville, and Hood advanced to its vicinity and 
laid siege to the city. 

The Battle of Nashville. — For two weeks Thomas lay 
behind his works, while Hood pressed the siege. The inac- 

' "If Hood will go there, I will give him rations to go with," said 
Sherman. The removal of Hood's army left the way clear for the 
movement which he contemplated, but which would have been impos- 
sible with a powerful army in his front. 



398 



THE CIVIL WAR. 



tivity of the Union general gave great dissatisfaction to the 
authorities at Washington. Grant ordered him to move, 
and had started to take command in his place, when 
Thomas, who had only delayed until fully prepared, fell 
upon Hood with all his force. For two days the battle 
continued, December 15 and 16. It ended in Hood's utter 
rout. Ho lost more than fifteen thousand men, and the 
remainder of his army 
was utterly disorganized 
and scattered. It never 
came together again. The 
soldiers made their way 
home. The army was 




Sherman's March, Atlanta to Raleigh. 

at an end. The war in the West was of minor importance 
after this signal victory. 

The Exhaustion of the South. — The South was now 
nearly exhausted. The heavy losses in battle and the dis- 
persal of Hood's army had greatly decreased its fighting 
capacity, while clothes, food, and munitions of war were 
growing perilously scarce. The blockade on the coast was 
so close that little could be brought in from abroad. The 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAB. 



399 



capture of Atlanta had cut off one important source of 
supply. Another was soon to bo lost. 

Sherman's March through Georgia. — Disregarding 
Hood's northward march, Sherman left Atlanta about the 
middle of November, and, cutting loose from all commu- 
nications, started with his army of sixty thousand veteran? 




Shepiman's March to the Sea. 

on a long march across the State of Georgia. For a month 
he and his army were lost to sight. They were out of the 
reach of telegraphs and railroads, living on the country as 
they passed, and Christmas was at hand before the anxious 
North heard of them again. ^ 



^ Three scouts, who left the Union army just before it reached Sa- 
vannah, brought the first news of Sherman's safety. They hid in the 
rice swamps by day and made their way down the river at night. Pass- 
ing Fort McAllister unseen, they were picked up by the blockading 



400 THE CIVIL WAR. 

The army, divided into four rolunins, with cavalry and 
skirmishers in front, had moved through three hundred 
miles of fertile territory, destroying railroads and supplies 
throughout a belt sixty miles wide. In late December they 
appeared before Savannah, having performed one of the 
most remarkable feats in modern military history, and 
ruined one of the principal sources of the enemy's mili- 
tary supplies. On the 21st, Savannah was captured and 
the famous march came to an end. Sherman's army win- 
tered in Georgia and South Carolina, still destroying supplies 
wherever found. 

The Red River Expedition. — Early in 1864 a land and 
naval expedition, under General Banks, was sent up the 
Red River, with the hope of conquering that region. It 
proved a disastrous failure. Banks being completely defeated 
and losing five thousand men and large supplies. Mean- 
while, taking advantage of the absence of troops. General 
Forrest advanced through Tennessee and Kentucky and 
attacked Paducah. He was repulsed by the gun-boats, but 
took Fort Pillow, and gave no quarter to its colored garrison. 
Altogether the Red River expedition was a costly and 
seemingly a needless effort, since the region invaded, being 
cut off from the rest of the Confederacy, could safely have 
been left untouched. It must have yielded of itself on the 
close of the war in the East. 

The "War on the Coast. — While these events were taking 
place on land, the fleet was not idle. The blockade had 
been made so complete that few blockade-runners now 
reached Confederate ports. During the war over fifteen 

gun-boats, which sent north the welcome news. After taking Savan- 
nah, Sherman wrote to Lincoln that he presented it to him as a Christ- 
mas gift, "with one hundred and fifty guns and twenty-five thousand 
bales of cotton." 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 401 

hundred of these adventurous vessels were taken or de- 
stroyed. Since early in the war Charleston had been be- 
sieged, but it was so vigorously defended that every attempt 
to take it proved a failure until the coming of Sherman's 
army in 1865. 

Farragut at Mobile. — On August 5, 1864, Admiral Far- 
ragut, with a fleet of wooden and iron-clad vessels, attacked 
the defences of Mobile, These defences consisted of three 
forts, a fleet of three gun-boats, and the great iron-clad ram 




Battt,e in MoBn.E Bat. 

Tennessee. The fight was a severe one, but ended in the 
capture of the ram and the dispersal or destruction of the 
gun-boats. The forts soon after surrendered. 

Fort Fisher Taken, — Later in the year (December 24, 
25), Fort Fisher, which defended the harbor of Wilmington, 
North Carolina, was attacked by a combined land and naval 
force, which failed to take it. On January 15, 1865, it was 



402 THE CIVIL WAR. 

assailed by the same force and taken by assault. This 
ended all blockade-running. Every port of the Confederacy 
was now closed. 

The Alabama. — Meanwhile, a number of Confederate 
cruisers — built in British ports and manned by British 
sailors, their officers only being from the South — had gone 
far toward destroying American commerce. Hundreds of 
vessels had been taken and burnt, or bonded for heavy 
sums. The most notable of these cruisers was the Alabama, 
commanded by Captain Semmes, which captured in all 
over sixty vessels. On June 19, 1864, this vessel, then in 
the harbor of Cherbourg, France, challenged the ship of 
war Kearsarge to fight. The challenge was accepted and a 
fierce battle took place. It ended in the sinking of the Ala- 
bama.^ Later in the year the Georgia and Florida, two others 
of these cruisers, were captured. 

The Presidential Election of 1864. — In the 1864 elec- 
tion Lincoln was again the Republican candidate for the 
Presidency. Andrew Johnson, a War Democrat of Ten- 

^ The Alabama was built, armed, and furnished in England, sailed 
from England under the British flag, and had a crew mostly made up 
of British subjects. She could not take her prizes into British ports, 
so they were generally plundered and burnt. She destroyed sixty-four 
American vessels, valued with their cargoes at ten million dollars. As 
a result of the work of Confederate privateers two-thirds of the carry- 
ing trade of the United States was transferred to British vessels. The 
Alabama was finally blockaded by the Kearsarge in the port of Cher- 
bourg, France, and, as she could not escape, challenged the Kearsarge 
to fight, coming out for that purpose. An English yacht hovered near 
the scene of action, and after the sinking of the Alabama picked up Cap- 
tain Semmes and part of his crew and carried them to England. By 
the laws of war they should have been delivered to the Kearsarge. 
This naval battle was witnessed by more than fifteen thousand specta- 
tors on the highlands of the coast, a Sunday excursion train having 
brought hundreds of them from Paris- 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 403 

nessee, was nominated for Vice-President. The Democrats 
nominated General McClellan, and in their platform de- 
manded that hostilities should cease, on the ground that the 
war was a failure and the South could not be subdued. 
Lincoln was elected, receiving two hundred and twelve 
electoral votes to twenty-one for McClellan. The eleven 
seceded States, of course, did not vote. 

Sherman's March North. — In February, 1865, Sherman 
left Savannah and began a long march north. His army, as 
before, moved in columns, covering a belt fifty miles wide. 
Columbia, the capital of South Carolina, was taken and 
burned. Charleston was evacuated by the Confederates 
and occupied by Federal troops. On reaching Goldsboro', 
North Carolina, Sherman was joined by General Schofield 
from Wilmington and General Terry from New-Bern, with 
their forces. His army was now one hundred thousand 
strong. It was opposed by General Johnston, who had been 
restored to his command, and who had done his utmost to 
check Sherman's advance to the north. 

The Fall of Richmond. — The war was nearer its end 
than many supposed. Despite the stupendous earthworks 
which Lee's army had built from Petersburg to Richmond, 
there were not men enough for their proper defence, while 
the operations of the armies at the South and West had 
largely cut olf the sources of reinforcements and supplies. 
The end came in the spring of 1865. On March 29, Gen- 
eral Sheridan, with a large force of cavalry and infantry, 
moved around the right flank of Lee's army to Five Forks, 
a place about twelve miles west of Petersburg. This place 
surrendered on April 1, yielding Sheridan five thousand 
prisoners. 

It was evident that Richmond could no longer be held, 
Lee, threatened with an attack in the rear, felt it necessary 



404 THE CIVIL WAR. 

to evacuate the capital without delay. On April 2 the 
Union army made an assault along the whole line, and 
before noon many of the Confederate works were taken and 
thousands of prisoners captured. The end was at hand. 
Lee sent word to President Davis that the army must retreat 
at once. During that night the Confederate government 
and army left the city they had so long and vigorously held. 
On Monday, April 3, Federal troops marched into the 
capital of the Confederacy.^ 

The Last March of Lee's Army. — Only one hope re- 
mained to General Lee. That was to join Johnston in 
North Carolina and seek to prolong the contest by the com- 
bined strength of the two armies. This junction Grant was 
determined, if possible, to prevent, and he pursued the 
retiring army with the utmost speed. 

Lee marched toward Lynchburg. Sheridan's cavalry 
cut him off from this point. Lee's veterans were now 
without food, and were forced to gnaw the young shoots 
of the trees for sustenance. At length they found their 



^ Word of what General Lee pi'oposed was brought to President 
Davis while at church, the day being Sunday. He immediately left, 
with a face that betrayed the character of the news. People hurried 
from the churches, and the alarm spread through the city. When, 
late in the afternoon, the signs of evacuation became evident, crowds 
of fugitives tilled the streets, hurrying from the city by every means 
available. About midnight hundreds of barrels of liquor were rolled 
into the streets and the heads knocked in, to prevent the disorder of 
general drunkenness. By military order the four principal tobacco 
warehouses of the city were set on fire and the flames soon spread 
beyond control. When morning broke the conflagration was wide- 
extended, and everywhere were busy plunderers, carrying off goods of 
every description. Into this scene of terror the Federal troops came 
as aids to law and order, lending their assistance to check the con- 
flagration and put an end to the reign of robbery. 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 



405 



advance completely cut off by Sheridan, and on the 9th 
of April, 1865, at Appomattox Court-Hoiise, General Lee, 
finding further efforts hopeless, surrendered his army to 
General Grant. 

This army had been greatly reduced. Thousands had 
been taken or had deserted in the hopeless retreat. Only 




TlTF T, \ST (V)N'FF,I>FRATE BATTT.K LINE. 

about twenty-eight thousand remained. These were paroled. 
Grant supplied the starving veterans with food, and allowed 
the cavalry to keep their horses, saying, with fine generosity, 
" They will need them for their spring ploughing and other 
farm work." 

The End of the War, — Five days after Lee's surrender 
(April 14) General Anderson hoisted over Fort Sumter the 
flag which he had pulled down on that day four years be- 
fore. Soon after all opposition to the Union armies ended. 
Johnston, who had been repulsed near Goldsboro', on 
March 19, surrendered to Sherman on April 26, on the 
same terms that had been granted Lee. On May 4, Gen- 



406 THE CIVIL WAR. 

eral Taylor, in Alabama, surrendered, and soon after the 
last of the Confederates in arms gave up the struggle. The 
total number paroled in the several armies was one hun- 
dred and seventy-four thousand two hundred and twenty- 
three. 

Capture of Davis. — Jefferson Davis, with his family and 
cabinet, fled from Richmond rapidly southward, with a 
guard of two thousand cavalry soldiers. These gradually 
dwindled away, and on May 11 he was captured at Irwins- 
ville, Georgia. He was imprisoned in Fortress Monroe, but 
was finally set at liberty without a trial. 

Assassination of Lincoln. — The surrender of General. 
Lee was quickly followed by a deplorable incident, which 
threw the whole nation, which had been gladdened by the 
return of peace, into a state of sorrow and mourning. On 
the evening of April 14, while the President was seated, 
with his family and friends, in a box at Ford's Theatre, he 
was shot by an actor named John Wilkes Booth, who 
sprang to the stage with a theatrical cry of " Sic semper 
tyrannis !" (" Thus always with tyrants !") 

He was one of a party of conspirators, of whom another 
tried to kill Mr. Seward, the Secretary of State.* Booth 
was tracked to his hiding-place and shot. Four of his 
accompUces were hanged and others imprisoned for life. 
The President lingered a few hours, and died the next 
morning. The funeral took place on the 19th, which was 
observed as a day of mourning throughout the land. 



^ Booth and his accomplices seem to have been influenced by a 
foolish idea of avenging the wrongs of the South, with which may 
have been mixed up a desire for notoriety. As it was they injured the 
South by removing one on whom it was coming to look as a friend, 
and whose kindliness and wisdom would have gone far tu prevent the 
dissensions and bitter feeling that afterward arose. 



THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR. 407 

The body was borne to the President's home at Spring- 
field, Illinois, through a land plunged into the deepest 
grief. 

8. THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR. 

TariflE" and. Internal Revenue. — Congress and the execu- 
tive department of the government were actively engaged 
during the war, largely in the task of providing means for 
its continuance. The obtaining of revenue was one of the 
most important duties of the administration, and various 
financial measures were adopted. The Morrill Tariff Act, 
passed just before Lincoln took his seat in 1861, added 
largely to the duties on imports. During the war further 
increases in duties were made, till at the end of the conflict 
the tariff charges were nearly three times as great as in 
Buchanan's administration. 

To increase the revenue a system of internal taxes Avas 
adopted. Stamps had to be bought and placed on all bank 
checks, receipts, and many legal, commercial, and other 
documents. Pianos, billiard-tables, gold watches, and a 
host of other things were taxed. Heavy taxes were laid on 
tobacco and spirituous liquors, and people with large in- 
comes had to pay a tax. 

Paper Money and Bonds. — But it was impossible by 
taxation to meet the enormous expenses of the war, which 
soon reached one million dollars a day, and in time became 
three times that amount. The vast sum required could be 
had only by borrowing. Bonds bearing interest at high rates 
were issued, and large sums of money were obtained in 
this way. National paper money or notes were also issued, 
which were called " greenbacks" from their color. 

Gold at a Premium. — Gold and silver soon became more 
valuable than greenbacks and ceased to be used as money. 



408 THE CIVIL WAR. 

Gold steadily increased in price until at length a greenback 
dollar was worth only about thirty-five cents in gold. 
Many years passed before the government notes equalled 
gold in value. As there was no silver in circulation, change 
became very scarce, and small notes, for fifty cents, twenty- 
five cents, and smaller sums, were issued to supply the 
public demand. 

National Banks. — In 1863 an act of Congress was passed 
establishing National Banks. These took the place of the 
old State Banks. The notes issued by them were made 
good by United States bonds bought by the banks and de- 
posited in the Treasury at Washington, so that these notes 
were everywhere taken, the government being security for 
their payment. 

Southern Finances. — The Confederacy adopted similar 
methods of finance, but had not the same power of making 
good its promises to pay. Bonds were issued, many of 
which were sold in Europe. These fell in value until they 
became worthless. The same was the case with the paper 
money issued. Its fate resembled that of the Continental 
currency of the Revolution. Late in the war flour was 
quoted at two hundred and seventy-five dollars a barrel, 
shoes at one hundred and twenty-five dollars a pair, pota- 
toes at twenty-five dollars a bushel, butter at fifteen dollars 
a pound, etc.^ 

^ The people of the Confederacy were put to the severest straits to 
obtain the necessaries of life. While great sums in Confederate cur- 
rency were paid for ordinary articles, there were others not to be had 
at any price. Many substitutes were used for tea. Pins became ex- 
ceedingly scarce, and hair-pins were made of large thorns with heads 
of wax. Shoes were made with wooden soles, to which the uppers 
were tacked. Salt was used with the greatest economy, and old fish- 
barrels were soaked and the water evaporated to increase the supply. 



THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR. 409 

Conscription. — The armies, North and South, at first 
were raised by volunteering. At length, as enlistments 
grew slow, a conscription act was passed by Congress. It 
was not severe. Any person " drafted" could gain exemp- 
tion by hiring a substitute, or paying three hundred dollars 
for that purpose. Large bounties were paid for volunteers, 
and many were secured in that way. Conscription was 
also adopted in the South, where in the end few exemptions 
were permitted. 

The Draft Riot. — The conscription was strongly opposed, 
particularly in the city of New York, and on July 13, 1863, 
a serious riot broke out there, the mob gaining control of 
the city, and holding it in terror for several days. Great 
excesses took place, about fifty buildings being burned, and 
more than two million dollars' worth of property destroyed. 
The rioters showed a particular hatred toward colored 
people, of whom several were hanged. Troops were 
brought to the city to put down the riot, and in the struggle 
that followed over twelve hundred of the rioters were killed. 

Foreign Affairs. — Earnest .efforts were made by the Con- 
federacy to obtain from foreign nations a recognition of its 
independence as a nation, but without success. It was 
feared by foreign nations that such an act would bring 
against them a declaration of war from the United States. 
A number of them, however, accorded belligerent rights to 
the Confederate States. And through the sympathy of the 
British government they were permitted to build and equip 
cruisers, a form of support for which Great Britain after- 
ward paid dearly. 



Women wore garments the cloth of which they had spun and woven, 
while woollen clothing almost disappeared. Such were a few of the 
endless makeshifts to which the people were put. 



410 THE CIVIL WAR. 

The Armies. — At the time of Lee's surrender there were 
more than a milUon of Union soldiers under arms. The 
total number enlisted had been much more than this, and 
probably six hundred thousand lost their lives on the two 
sides from wounds and disease, in addition to the large 
number disabled. How many served in the Confederate 
armies there are no statistics to show. The total cost of 
the war, including property destroyed and the value of the 
slaves, has been estimated at not less than eight billion 
dollars. At the end of the war the government was in 
debt nearly three billion dollars. 

Sanitary and Christian Commissions. — No previous 
war had ever shown such humane care of the people for 
the wounded and suffering soldiers. The Sanitary Com- 
mission, organized among the people, had its corps of 
nurses, physicians, and attendants, its hospitals, ambu- 
lances, hospital cars and boats, and other means for the 
care of the sick and wounded, and distributed vast quanti- 
ties of clothing and other supplies for the comfort of the 
soldiers. Millions of dollars were raised for its support by 
subscription and by " Sanitary Fairs" held all over the 
North. The Christian Commission was organized to look 
after the moral and religious welfare of the soldiers, in 
which it proved very active and efficient. The South 
lacked the means to take care of her soldiers to any similar 
extent. 

The Grand Review. — On May 23 and 24 a grand review 
of Grant's and Sherman's armies was held in Washington, 
previous to their disbandment. The column of soldiers 
was over thirty miles long, and for two days it marched 
up the broad avenue from the Capitol to the White House, 
to the sound of martial music, and under the tattered flags 
which had waved over scores of battle-fields. No such 



THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR. 411 

spectacle had ever been seen in America. And a still more 
striking spectacle was that of all these war-worn veterans, 
in a few weeks, returning to the peaceful duties of citizen- 
ship, only some fifty thousand of the whole vast array being 
retained under arms. 

What the War Settled. — If it be asked what was settled 
by this long and terrible war, it may be answered that it 
definitely settled the question of secession. No State is 
likely hereafter to attempt to leave the Union. 

It put an end to slavery, and thus removed the principal 
cause of hostile feelings between the two sections of the 
Union. 

It showed the strength of the great republic, and taught 
Europe that the Union of the States was far stronger than 
foreign statesmen were prepared to believe. 

It greatly increased the respect which foreign nations 
held for this country, and for the principle of republicanism 
as here maintained. 

New States. — During the war two new States were ad- 
mitted to the Union, West Virginia, already named, and, in 
1864, Nevada, whose population had grown rapidly from 
the discovery of rich silver-mines within its borders. 



27 



PART X. 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 



I. Jobnson's H&ministration. 

The New President's Position. — On April 15, 1865, three 
hours after Liiicohi's life had ended, Andrew Johnson ' 
quietly assumed his place and began 
to perform the duties of the office. 
The new President was a man of posi- 
tive convictions and strong will, quali- 
ties which soon brought him into 
hostility with Congress. His position 
was one of the greatest difficulty, and 
liis vigorous adherence to his personal 
views simply added to the difficulty, 
without enabling him to carry out one 
of his proposed measures. Congress, 
which would have acted in concert 
with Lincoln, acted in opposition to Johnson, and was forced 
into severer measures than it would probably have adopted 
had Lincoln survived. 

' Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth United States Fiesment, was 
born in North Carolina in 1808. His educational advantages were 
meagre, but he took every opportunity to study during his apprentice- 
ship to a tailor. He learned to write after his marriage. Entering 
political life, he occupied several State offices, was sent to Congress in 
1843, and afterward served as governor of Tennessee and as United 
States Senator. He was an ardent Democrat, but strongly opposed the 
412 




Andrew Johnson. 



JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 413 

The Thirteenth Amendment. — In February, 1865, while 
the war was still in progress, Congress passed a bill adding 
a Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United 
States. This amendment abolished slavery within the 
Union, completing the work of Lincoln's Emancipation Proc- 
lamation. It was adopted by the requisite three-fourths of 
the States during the year, and became a law December 18, 
1865.' 

Loyal State Governments Organized. — Congress not 
being in session, Johnson proceeded to act without calling 
an extra session. He issued (May 29, 1865) a proclamation 
of pardon to the people of the seceded States, on condition 
that they would swear to " faithfully support, protect, and 
defend the Constitution and the Union." This oath was 
widely taken. In four of the States, Virginia, Tennessee, 
Arkansas, and Louisiana, loyal State governments were 
formed. These the President recognized, and authorized 
the other States to call conventions to form loyal govern- 
ments. These conventions ratified the Thirteenth Amend- 
ment, repealed the secession ordinances, and repudiated the 
war-debt of the Confederacy. This done, the President 
considered that the only necessary steps had been taken, 
and that the seceded States were again full members of the 
Union, a view with which Congress, on coming together, 
did not agree. 

Freedmen's Bureau. — The new Southern governments, 
believing that the negroes would not work in a state of 
freedom, passed laws with severe penalties to compel them 

secession of Tennessee, and in 1862 was made military governor of 
that State. His activity in this position won him the nomination to 
the Vice-Presidency. After his Presidential term he remained politi- 
cally active and was again elected to the Senate in 1875. but died 
during that year. » See page 493. 



414 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

to work. Congress, fearing that a condition resembling that 
of slavery would be produced, organized a Freedmen'a 
Bureau, for the protection of the recent slaves. It passed 
also a Civil Rights Bill, which gave the freedmen all the 
rights of citizens of the United States except that of suffrage. 
Under this bill no Southerner could hold office until he took 
an oath that he had taken no part in secession. 

The Fourteenth Amendment. — In 1866 another amend- 
ment to the Constitution was passed by Congress, and was 
ratified by the requisite number of States on July 28, 1868. 

This declared that no State should deprive any citizen of 
his rights ; that all who had sworn to defend the Constitution 
and had taken up arms against it should be ineligible to 
office (unless made eligible by Act of Congress) ; and that 
the United States debt should be valid, but no debt incurred 
by insurrectionists should be paid. 

Reconstruction Acts. — Various other measures, known 
as Reconstruction Acts, were passed. All these acts were 
vetoed by the President, and were passed over his veto, 
while the feeling of irritation between the President and 
Congress daily grew stronger. Military governments were 
appointed for all the seceded States except Tennessee, which 
was permitted to send representatives to Congress in 1866. 
The military government of each State was to continue until 
a convention, chosen by voters without regard to race or 
color, should frame a new government and ratify the Four- 
teenth Amendment. No Confederate leader was permitted 
to vote for or take part in these conventions. 

Six States Readmitted. — Under this law six States, Ala- 
bama, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Arkansas, 
and Florida, were readmitted to the Union, and sent repre- 
sentatives to Congress in June, 1868. The other four States 
refused to assent to the law. 



JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 415 

The Carpet-Bag Governments. — The new governments 
/ormed were anything but satisfactory. The " iron-clad 
oath," as the oath required to be taken was called, kept 
the most intelligent of the people out of office. The freed 
slaves, who were given the right of suffrage under the 
provisional governments, formed the majority in several 
of the States, and their complete ignorance of political 
matters led to an unfortunate state of affairs. Advent- 
urers from the North — who were called " carpet-baggers," 
it being said of them that they could put all they owned 
in a carpet-bag — made their way south, solicited the negro 
vote, and were elected to office. Many of the recent slaves 
were sent to the State legislatures. The result was calami- 
tous, money was squandered or stolen, and the States 
involved were nearly ruined. 

Tenure of Office Act.— By 1867 the hostility between 
the President and Congress grew so great that Congress took 
steps to reduce the President's power. An act, called the 
Tenure of Office Act, was passed, which forbade the Pres- 
ident to remove certain officials without the consent of the 
Senate. This bill was promptly vetoed, but was passed 
over the veto on March 2, 1867. 

This measure angered the President, and he quickly 
showed his intention to ignore it. He asked Edwin Stanton, 
Secretary of War, whom he disliked, to resign. Stanton 
declined, whereupon Johnson removed him from office and 
appointed Lorenzo Thomas in his place. 

Impeachment of the President. — Congress met again in 
December, and the Senate refused to confirm the President's 
action. As a result Stanton resumed his official position. 
The President thereupon directed Thomas to perform the 
duties of the office. This setting aside an act of Congress 
was a grave matter, and in February the House of Repre- 



416 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

sentatives, on this and other charges, impeached the Pres- 
ident for high crimes and misdemeanors. 

The charge Avas a serious one. No President had ever 
before been so accused. Under it he was subject to a trial 
before the Senate, and if found guilty would be incapable 
of holding office. In such a case the presiding officer of the 
Senate would have succeeded him as President. 

The trial was long continued, lasting from March 5 to May 
16, 1868. Chief Justice Chase presided over the Senate, 
which sat as a court. A two-thirds vote was necessary for 
conviction. When the vote was taken there was one less 
than the required number. The President was therefore 
acquitted. His term, however, was nearing its end, as his 
Presidency would end in less than a year. 

Amnesty. — On Christmas-day, 1868, President Johnson 
issued a proclamation of " full pardon and amnesty" to 
those who had taken part in the " late rebellion," This 
did not restore their political rights, which could only be 
done by Congress. 

Maximilian in Mexico. — During our Civil War, Napoleon 
III., Emperor of France, found a pretext to interfere in 
Mexico, and sent an army there, though Secretary Seward 
warned him that his action would be resented by the United 
States, as contrary to the Monroe doctrine. Napoleon pro- 
posed to found an empire in Mexico, and selected as em- 
peror Maximilian, an Austrian archduke. In 1865 our 
government gave Napoleon plainly to understand that it 
would be wise for him to remove his army. He did so, 
therefore, but Maximilian remained. As a result the repub- 
licans of Mexico rose in arms, defeated his army, captured 
and shot him. The empire was at an end and the republic 
was re-established. 

The Fenians. — In 1866 the Fenians, a» organization of 



JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 417 

Irish-Americans, fancied that they could aid their native 
country by invading Canada. A considerable number of 
them crossed the boundary-line, but the President issued a 
proclamation which soon settled the disturbance. 

The Atlantic Telegraph. — Another important matter was 
the laying of a successful ocean telegraph. This was ac- 
comphshed in 1866, by Cyrus W. Field, the projector of the 
first ocean cable. Since that time telegraph communication 
with Europe has been constant and many other cables have 
been laid.^ 

Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867, Russia offered her terri- 
tory in America, known as Russian America, to this country, 
for the price of seven million two hundred thousand dol- 
lars. The purchase was made, though many objected to it. 
It has proved a wise one, the country being rich in furs, 
tishes, timber, gold, and other valuable materials. This 
territory, since known as Alaska, is nearly six hundred thou- 
sand square miles in area. Nebraska, the thirty-seventh 
State, was admitted to the Union March 1, 1867. 

Treaty with China. — In 1868 a treaty with China was 
negotiated, by Anson Rurlingame, formerly minister to that 
country. It was the first treaty that China had ever made 
with a foreign nation except under compulsion. 

' The first Atlantic cable, laid in 1857, proved a failure. A cable 
laid in July, 1858, worked successfully for a short time, but ceased to 
work on September 1, while a celebration in honor of its success was 
being held in New York. Mr. Field continued his efforts, and a new 
cable was made in 1865, but it parted in the middle of the ocean and 
sunk to the bottom. Undismayed, he formed a new company and had 
a new cable made. This was laid in June, 1866, and proved success- 
ful. Then the cable of 1865 was raised by means of grappling-irons, 
spliced, and its laying completed. Both cables worked admirably. A 
battery made in a gun-cap has sent a telegraph message across the 
ocean. 



418 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 



Presidential Election of 1868.— In 1868 the Republican 
party nominated as its candidate Ulysses S. Grant, the great 
general of the war, Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, being asso- 
ciated with him as Vice-President. The Democratic party 
nominated Horatio Seymour, late governor of New York. 
Grant received two hundred and fourteen electoral votes 
out of two hundred and ninety-four, and was elected. 

2. (Brant's BDmtnistration. 

Harmony Restored. — The inauguration of General Grant ' 
as President of the United States put an end to the unfor- 
tunate controversy between the ex- 
ecutive and legislative branches of 
the government which had existed 
for four years, and which had worked 
to the disadvantage of the parties 
immediately concerned, the seced- 
ing States of the South. With the 
accession of President Grant har- 
mony between the several branches 
of the government was restored and 
the period of hostile relations came 
to an end. 
The Fifteenth Amendment. — The privilege of the suf- 
frage which had been given to tlie negroes under the pro- 
visional governments of the Southern States was confirmed 




Ulysses H. Grant. 



^ In 1877, on the close of Grant's second term, he made a tour of the 
world, visiting Europe, Northern Africa, India, China, and Japan. He 
was looked upon as the foremost military genius of the age, and his 
journey was an ovation from beginning to end, all nations seeking to 
do him honor. He died of cancer, at Mount McGregor, New York, in 
1885. His magnificent tomb on the Hudson has be'',orne a place of pil- 
grimage to visitors to New York City. 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 419 

in a new amendment to the Constitution, which provided 
that the right to vote in any part of this country should not 
be denied " on account of race, color, or previous condition 
of servitude." This gave to negroes the same rights of 
voting as to whites. It was adopted by the requisite num- 
ber of States in 1870. The adoption of the three new 
amendments was required of the four States — Virginia, 
Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas — still without representa- 
tion in Congress. This was done, and they were read- 
mitted in 1870. 

The Alabama Claims. — The end of the war was quickly 
followed by a demand on the part of the United States for 
redress from Great Britain for the damages caused by the 
privateer Alabama, which had been built in England and 
sailed from an English port. A strong, almost warlike, 
feeling arose, but in the end, by a treaty made at Wash- 
ington, both countries agreed to submit the matter to arbi- 
tration. A commission of five men, appointed by the 
United States, Great Britain, Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil, 
met in Geneva in 1872. This board found Great Britain in 
fault, and decided that she should pay this country fifteen 
million five hundred thousand dollars for the damage sus- 
tained. This is known as the " Geneva award." 

Other Arbitrations. — Other questions were settled by 
arbitration. In 1872 the Emperor of Germany decided a 
dispute about the Northwest boundary of the United States, 
and in 1877 a board of arbitration settled certain disputes 
between the American and Canadian fishermen. The latter 
decision went against the United States, which was ordered 
to pay five mihion five hundred thousand dollars to Great 
Britain. These settlements by arbitration are of great im- 
portance. Disputes no greater than those thus acted upon 
in former times often led to war. 



420 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 



Railroad Extension. — The conclusion of the war was 
followed by an era of rapid railroad construction, and 
during the period of Grant's first term thousands of miles 
of railroad were built. Of these enterprises much the most 
important was the railroad to the Pacific, which was com- 




OF THE TTNTON AND rENTRAL PatTFIC; RAIT-ROADS. 



pleted May lU, 1869. This great work, which was aided by 
liberal grants from Congress, completed a continuous line 
of rail from New York to San Francisco, a distance of over 
three thousand three hundred miles.^ Since then several 



' This railroad was begun during the Civil War. It consisted of 
two separate roads, which met at Ogden, Utah, the Union Pacific, 
which was built westward one thousand and twenty-nine miles from 
Omaha, and the Central Pacific, which extended eastward eight hun- 
dred and seventy-eight miles from San Francisco. The last spike, 
connecting these roads, was driven at Ogden, May 10, 1869. The 
spike was connected with telegraph wires, and each blow on it was 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 421 

other railroads have been buill, across the continent, and a 
traveller can go from the Atlantic to the Pacific to-day in 
less time than it took to go from Boston to Washington a 
century ago, and with far more ease and comfort. 

The Weather Bureau. — Congress in 1870 established a 
Weather Bureau, for the purpose of making and publishing 
accurate observations on the weather. This has been of 
immense service in advising the people of tfhe approach of 
storms, changes in temperature, etc. It was long under the 
care of the Signal Service of the Army, but was transferred 
in 1891 to the Agricultural Department of the government. 

Chicago and Boston Fires. — In 1871 there took place in 
Chicago what was perhaps the most destructive conflagra- 
tion recorded in history. It started on the evening of Oc- 
tober 9, in a stable, and is said to have been caused by a 
cow kicking over an oil-lamp. It raged frightfully for two 
days, aided by a high wind, and passed through the richest 
part of the city to the lake. More than three sc{uare miles 
were burned over, two hundred million dollars' worth of 
property was destroyed, more than two hundred persons 
were killed, and one hundred thousand were rendered 
homeless. About a year later a great fire in Boston de- 
stroyed nearly eighty million dollars' worth of property. 
The burned districts were rapidly rebuilt, with handsomer 
buildings than before.' 

telegraphed throughout the Union. Before this road was built the 
mail was carried to the Pacific on horseback by a "pony express," and 
afterward by a line of stage-coaches. 

^ At almost the same time as the Chicago fire, the most destructive 
forest fires ever known in this country broke out in Minnesota, Wis- 
consin, and Michigan. Vast wealth in timber was destroyed and 
many persons lost their lives. It was estimated that fifteen hundred 
persons perished in Wisconsin alone. 



422 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

The Whiskey Ring. — During the year 1872 a combina- 
tion was nia(i(» in SI. Louis to dofrand tho govornmont by 
keeping back part of the lax on whiskey and other distilled 
liquors. United States revenue officers were concerned in 
this with tlie distillers. During the next two years this 
scheme of fraud grew extensive, and spread to other cities. 
It was discovered in 1875, and more than two hundred 
persons were indicted for conspiracy. It was shown that 
the government had been robbed of nearly two million 
dollars. 

The Credit MobiUer. — A corporation known by the 
French title of Credit Mobilier had been organized for the 
construction of the Union Pacific Railroad. In 1872, during 
the Presidential campaign, charges were brought against 
certain Republican members of Congress to the efifect that 
they had accepted presents of stock from this company, in 
return for which they were to use their influence in its 
favor. An investigation was ordered by Congress. As a 
result two members were censured for receiving bribes, and 
others sank in public estimation. 

The Franking Privilege. — Abuses had also arisen in 
relation to the franking privilege, — the sending and re- 
ceiving of mail matter free by Congressmen and officials. 
Such quantities of matter were sent free through the mails 
as to add greatly to the expense of the postal service. This 
abuse was now checked, and only communications on offi- 
cial business and publications authorized by Congress were 
permitted to be sent. Rut an allowance for postage was 
made to each Congressman. 

The Salary Grab. — In the same Congress — that of 1873 
— a bill was passed which raised the salaries of many offi- 
cials of the government, the salary of the President being 
increased from twenty-five thousand to fifty thousand 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 423 

dollars a year, and those of Congressmen from five thou- 
sand to seven thousand five hundred dollars. To this no 
public objection would likely have been made. The sala- 
ries of officials in this country had always been small as 
compared with those paid in other large nations. But Con- 
gress went further, and dated the increase in the salary of 
members back to 1871. This raised a storm of disap- 
proval. The measure was called the " Salary-Grab Bill," 
and was so bitterly opposed that Congress repealed it at 
the next session. 

The Indian Question. — In the earher days of this coun- 
try the Indians east of the Mississippi had made much 
trouble for the whites. Now the Indians west of the Mis- 
sissippi were to be dealt with. There had been outbreaks 
of the Sioux Indians during the war and in 1866. Other 
troubles arose during Grant's administration. In 1872 it 
was proposed to move the Modoc Indians of Oregon from 
one reservation to another. They refused to move, retired 
to a rugged and difficult territory known as the " Lava 
Beds," and for a year resisted the troops. Few of them 
were left at the end of the conflict, and these were sent to 
Indian Territory.^ 

The Sioux "War. — In 1876, near the end of Grant's 
second term, a war broke out with the Sioux Indians, who 
refused to move from the Black Hills of Dakota. Gold had 
been discovered in this region, and it was wanted for the 

' In Grant's first annual message he announced " a new policy 
toward these wards of the nation by giving the management of a few 
reservations of Indians to members of the Society of Friends." At a 
later date other reservations were intrusted to other religious sects. 
This new policy has worked well, though it had to contend with the 
injustice and frauds of the Indian agents. It has given rise to an 
* Indian Rights Association." 



424 



DEVELOPMENT ■ OF THE NEW NATION. 



whites, but the Sioux, under their leader, Sitting Bull, fought 
fiercely. During the contest General Custer, a brave cav- 
alry leader of the Civil War, with a small force, was attacked 
on the Little Big Horn River by ten times his number of 
Indians, and he and his entire regiment were killed, the 
savages giving no quarter. In the end Sitting Bull and his 
followers fled to Canada. 




KATTI.E AT THE l.ITTI.E l->li; HoRM 



The Election of 1872. — A new party arose in 1872, 
under the name of Liberal Repubhcans. It advocated the 
removal of troops from the South and civil service reform. 
Since the " spoils system" had been instituted by President 
Jackson the number of places under the government had 
very greatly increased. These positions were given out by 
Congressmen and others in reward for political services, 
A reform in this abuse was badly needed, and a conven- 



GRANT^S ADMINISTRATION. 425 

tion was held by the new organization, which nominated 
Horace Greeley, publisher and editor of the New York 
Tribune. 

The Democratic party accepted Greeley as its candidate 
in spite of the fact that he had been one of its most active 
opponents. Grant was renominated by the Republican 
party. Of the three hundred and sixty-six electoral votes 
cast Grant received two hundred and eighty-six. Henry 
Wilson, of Massachusetts, was elected Vice-President. 
Greeley died before the electoral votes were cast. 

A Prosperous Period. — The four years of Grant's first 
administration were years of prosperity. The steady de- 
velopment of gold- and silver-mines added greatly to the 
wealth of the country, the production of coal, iron, and 
petroleum was increased, the area of wheat production 
expanded, manufactures were active, and all branches of 
industry improved. But this activity of business gave rise 
to an activity of speculation that yielded its natural result, 
a business depression of unsurpassed severity. 

The Panic of 1873. — The speculative movement took 
largely the direction of very rapid railroad-building, the 
railroad mileage of this country being increased more than 
fifty per cent, during Grant's first term. The total mileage 
became equal to that of all Europe. In October, 1873, a 
prominent banking-house of Philadelphia, largely interested 
in ^he Northern Pacific Railroad, failed. Failures in all 
directions followed, manufactories ceased their operations, 
banks closed their doors, and there was inaugurated a 
severe and wide-spread panic, whose effects did not fully 
pass away for six years. 

The Centennial Anniversary. — The 4th of July, 1876, 
was the centennial or hundredth anniversary of the signing 
of the Declaration of Independence. It was resolved to 



426 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

celebrate this by a great World's Fair, to be held at Phila- 
delphia, in which city the Declaration had been signed. 
The business depression interfered in a measure with the 
success of this enterprise, but as an exhibition of the 
world's products it was of unsurpassed extent and value. 
The Main Hall covered twenty acres, and many other large 
buildings were erected, all fdled with objects of art and 
industry. Over ten million persons visited the grounds. 
In art products it was found that the nations of Europe 
far surpassed this country, and in this direction the exhibi- 
tion had a great educational value. In the results of inven- 
tive genius the United States was unequalled. The most 
striking of these inventions was the telephone, then first 
exhibited. 

Colorado Admitted. — Colorado was admitted to the 
Union in 1876, and from this fact it is often called the 
" Centennial State." It had grown rapidly in consequence 
of its rich mines of silver and other minerals, but it has 
also proved well adapted to grazing, and agriculture has 
been much developed through irrigation. 

The Election of 1876. — In the political campaign of 1876 
much use was made by the Democratic party of the fact that 
W. W. Belknap, the Secretary of War, had been charged 
with receiving bribes from office-seekers. He was im- 
peached, but had resigned before the impeachment. The 
court of impeachment did not convict him, but the charges 
against him were used with effect against his party. The 
Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and 
William A. Wheeler, of New York. The Democrats nomi- 
nated Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hen- 
dricks, of Indiana. Nominations were also made by the 
National Greenback party, which claimed that the currency 
of the country should be paper money issued by the gov- 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 427 

ernment, and the Prohibition party, which opposed the 
manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors. After the 
election it was found that the result was very close between 
Hayes and Tilden, and that the decision rested principally 
upon the votes of Florida and Louisiana. 

Returning Boards. — In the South there existed " Return- 
ing Boards," whose duty it was to receive the election returns 
and count the votes. From their decision there was no 
appeal. In Florida and Louisiana the largest number of 
votes were returned for the Democratic candidates. But 
the Boards in those States declared that there were errors 
in certain districts, whose votes they refused to count. In 
consequence they declared that the Republican candidates 
were elected. The election in South Carolina was also 
claimed by both parties, and there was one elector in dispute 
in Oregon. 

The Electoral Commission. — The Democrats claimed 
that the election was legally theirs and that they had been 
defrauded by the Returning Boards. As the electoral vote 
was disputed, the matter came before Congress for decision. 
But here the House had a Democratic and the Senate a 
Republican majority, and there seemed no hope of an agree- 
ment. What was to be done was not clear. The dispute 
might lead to civil war, and great anxiety was felt. 

In the end Congress decided to refer the disputed votes 
to an Electoral Commission, composed of five Senators, five 
Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court. 
Seven Republicans and seven Democrats were chosen, while 
the fifteenth. Judge David Davis, was independent in politics. 
But before the court sat he was elected Senator from Illinois 
and resigned from the Supreme Court. He was replaced 
by a Republican judge, which gave the Republicans a ma- 
jority in the Commission. The court decided, by a vote 

28 



428 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

of eight to seven, to accept the decision of the Returning 
Boards in each case. This gave Hayes one hundred and 
eighty-five votes to one hundred and eighty-four for Tilden. 
Hayes was therefore declared elected on the morning of 
March 3. 

3. Mayes's H&ministration. 

A New Policy. — Though the Democratic party had vig- 
orously opposed the election of Rutherford B. Hayes,' his 
policy proved in several respects to 
be that which they advocated. He 
believed that the troubles in the 
Southern States would never cease 
while the national government inter- 
fered in their internal affairs. He 
therefore withdrew the United States 
troops from that section of the coun- 
try, trusting that the whites and blacks 
would come to some amicable settle- 
Ri'THEKFOKD B. Hayes. mcut of their difficulties. As a result 
the negro rule in the legislatures of 
the South came to an end. The President's action was 
severely condemned by many Republicans, yet it was ap- 
proved by the great mass of the people, and put an end to 
the political strife which had continued since the war. 

Resumption of Specie Payments. — President Hayes was 
also an advocate of civil service reform, or the removal of 

' Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822. He graduated at 
Kenyon College, studied at the Harvard Law School, and was admitted 
to the bar in 1845. Like all the Presidents after the Civil War except 
Cleveland, he had served as a soldier, becoming major of the Twenty- 
third Ohio, and rising to the grade of brigadier-general. He was 
elected to Congress in 1865, and was governor of Ohio for three terms. 
He lived in retirement after his Presidential term, and died in 1893. 




HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 429 

office-holding from political control, and of the early resump- 
tion of specie payments. Since the war the paper money 
of the country had been depreciated in value, and gold had 
passed out of circulation. At one time it took nearly three 
dollars in paper to equal a dollar in gold. But as the years 
went on the premium demanded for gold grew less, and in 
1875 Congress passed a bill providing that on and after 
January 1, 1879, the paper money of the United States 
should be redeemed in coin at the Treasury. 

Many believed this could" not be done, but it was. Gold 
was gradually accumulated in the Treasury, and on the 1st 
of January, 1879, John Sherman, Secretary of the Treasury, 
announced that he would give gold for any United States 
notes presented for payment. This announcement sufficed. 
Few notes were presented. From that time on paper money 
has been worth its face value in gold, and the credit of the 
country has grown so good that the old six per cent, loans 
have been replaced by loans at much lower rates of inter- 
est. Many millions of dollars in interest have thus been 
saved. 

The Gold Reserve. — It was also provided that one hun- 
dred million dollars in gold should always be kept in the 
Treasury, to form a gold reserve with which to redeem the 
government paper money. This has not always been pos- 
sible. The great demand for gold in the years 1894-96 
reduced the reserve much below this sum. It was restored, 
however, during the latter part of 1896. 

Silver Legislation. — Up to 1873 only about eight million 
silver dollars had been coined in the United States. By a 
law passed in 1873 the silver dollar ceased to be coined. 
Soon afterward the discovery of new and rich mines 
greatly added to tlT^ production of silver, and a demand 
grew up that the coinage of silver should be renewed and 



430 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

that it should again be made a legal tender for debts. In 
1878 a bill, known as the Bland Silver Bill, was passed, 
requiring the government to coin not less than two million 
or more than four million silver dollars per month. Pres- 
ident Hayes vetoed the bill, but it was passed over his veto. 
This law continued in force until 1890. 

The Railroad and Coal Strikes. — The business depres- 
sion which began in 1873 had caused a lowering of Avages 
in many industries. In 1877 several railroad companies 
reduced the wages of their men. There followed one of 
the most threatening and costly strikes ever known in this 
country. The strike, or refusal to work, was general among 
railroad employes in the Northern States west of New Eng- 
land. Other men were prevented from taking the places 
of the strikers, and for two weeks the movements of trains 
were widely prevented. In Pennsylvania the coal-miners 
joined the strike, and in all about one hundred and fifty 
thousand men stopped work. 

The strike was followed by rioting, destruction of prop- 
erty, and bloodshed. The riots were most serious in Pitts- 
burg, where the militia sent to suppress them were attacked 
by the mob, freight-cars were plundered and burned, and 
railroad buildings were reduced to ashes. More than three 
million dollars' worth of property was destroyed and nearly 
one hundred lives were lost. In the end soldiers of the 
regular army had to be sent to Pittsburg to suppress the 
riots. 

The Mississippi Jetties. — An industrial event of very 
different character took place during this administration. 
For years the Mississippi River had been growing shallower 
near its mouth from the great amount of sediment brought 
down and deposited by the stream. This interfered with 
navigation and caused the river frequently to overflow its 



HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION, 431 

banks. Tho largest vessels could no longer reach New 
Orleans, even by the deepest channel of the river. 

This difficulty was overcome by Captain James B. Eads, 
who had built a splendid bridge across the river at St. 
Louis. He proposed to narrow the river, so as to make 
the current swifter and cause it to deepen its channel. This 
he was permitted to try, and he succeeded by building jet- 
ties, or sunken walls of wicker-work filled with earth, along 
each side. The result was a great success. The narrow 
and swift stream swept out the sediment from its channel, 
which became so deep that the largest vessels were able 
easily to come up to New Orleans. 

Yellow Fever in the South. — A terrible epidemic of yel- 
low fever broke out in portions of the South in the years 
1877 and 1878. It was particularly destructive in Memphis 
and New Orleans, largely on account of their lack of sani- 
tary regulations. More than fifteen thousand people died 
in 1878. Since then strict laws have been enacted, and 
the healthfulness of these cities has greatly increased. In 
Memphis new systems of drainage were adopted, the city 
was thoroughly cleaned, and rigid sanitary methods were 
applied. 

The Election of 1880. — In the Presidential election of 
1880, James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur were the 
Republican candidates. The Democrats nominated General 
Winfield S. Hancock, a distinguished soldier of the war, and 
William H. English. The election resulted in the success of 
the Republican party, whose candidates received two hun- 
dred and fourteen electoral votes against one hundred and 
fifty-five for the Democratic candidates. 



432 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

4. TTbe (3art[el& an^ Hrtbur B^mtnistratlon6. 

Assassination o^ the President. — President Garfield ' 
took his seat on the 4th of March, 1881. He found trouble 
awaiting him. The feeling in favor of reform in the civil 
service had grown in the country, and met with the sym- 
pathy of tlie President, but applications for office came to 
him from all sides, many of them supported by members 
of Congress. The Senators from 

^N^ New York offered a candidate for 
the post of collector of the port of 
\ New York City. The President 
^^; * would not appoint him, and the 
Ifc j angry Senators resigned their seats. 
H| / The thirst for office ended in mur- 
' * ^ der. On the 2d of July, while the 
\ ^ / President was standing in the rail- 
— -^ road station at Washington, he was 

jamk« a. gakk.eld. gj^Q^ j3y ^ disappointed office-seeker 

named Guiteau (ge-to). For weeks he lingered in suffering, 
the sympathizing people in hopes of his recovery, but at 
length, on the 19tli of September, he passed away. 

Civil Service Reform. — This dastardly murder had one 
beneficial effect, that of inducing Congress, in 1883, to pass 

^ James Abram Garfield was born in Ohio in 1831. The family was 
very poor, but by hard work he managed to obtain admission to Wil- 
liams College, where he graduated in 1854. He became a professor in 
Hiram College, was elected State senator in 1859, and in 1861 entered 
the army as colonel. He took part in several battles, was made major- 
general in 1863, and soon after was elected to Congress. Here he 
became prominent as a statesman of fine ability. In 1880 he was 
elected United States Senator, but before he took his seat was elected 
President. 



THE GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATIONS. 433 

d Civil Service Act, which was intended to take the appoint- 
ment to offices out of the President's hands. It provided 
for a board of commissioners and for the appointment to 
office by examination of candidates, those who passed high- 
est to have the first chance. 

The act also provided that office-holders under the gov- 
ernment should not be asked to con- 
tribute money for political purposes, 
and should not take an active part in 
political contests.^ ^^P^^^'T'^ilJK ^ 

Arthur Becomes President. — The 
assassination of Garfield lifted Chester 
A. Arthur^ to the Presidential chair. 
It was the fourth time a Vice-Presi- 
dent had succeeded the President. 
Arthur had been nominated for polit- 

Chester a. Arthur. 

ical reasons, and was looked upon as 

a mere politician. But he proved himself more than this, 
and filled the high office which unexpectedly came to him 
to the satisfaction of the people. 

Anti-Polygamy Bill. — In 1882 Congress passed a bill 




^ In 1881 there were in the country (including post-offices) about one 
hundred and forty thousand office-holders. Since then this number has 
been increasing. At first only a few offices were filled under the new 
law, but the number has steadily increased, and now nearly all the 
minor offices, except the post-offices, are filled by competitive exami- 
nation. Garfield was a martyr of the spoils system introduced by Jack- 
son. His death gave the inspiration to a great reform. 

* Chester Alan Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830. He graduated 
at Union College, became a teacher and then a lawyer, and during the 
war served as quartermaster-general of New York. He was appointed 
collector of the port of New York in 1872 and served six years. He 
was a candidate for the Presidential nomination in 1884, but was un- 
successful. He died in 1886. 



434 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

for the suppression of polygamy by the Mormons of Utah, 
many of these having more than one wife. It was opposed 
at first, but has since been carried out, and polygamy is at 
an end. 

Industrial Exhibitions. — During Arthur's administration 
several industrial exhibitions were held in the South. One 
of these was held at Atlanta in 1881, and one at Louisville 
in 1883. A more important one was held at New Orleans 
in 1884, under the title of " The World's Industrial and 
Cotton Centennial Exposition." It was a large and inter- 
esting exhibition and demonstrated that the South had made 
great progress since the war. In 1784 the South exported 
eight bags — about equal to one bale — of cotton. Just be- 
fore the Civil War the crop reached about five million bales. 
In 1884 it had increased to eight millions. In 1860 there 
were scarcely any manufactures south of Maryland. In 
1884 there were millions of dollars invested in manufactures 
in the South. And agriculture had greatly advanced under 
free labor, vast quantities of corn, wheat, fruits, and vege- 
tables being raised. 

The "Washington Monument. — Another interesting event 
of the Arthur administration was the completion of the 
Washington Monument. This had been ordered imme- 
diately after the death of Washington, but the corner-stone 
was not laid till 1848, and it was not finished till 1885. 
It is an immense obelisk of white marble, five hundred 
and fifty-five feet high, and forms a striking feature of the 
architecture of the city of Washington. 

Standard Time. — An important event was the adoption 
of standard time, for the convenience of the great railroads 
running east and west. In 1883 the country was divided 
into four sections, throughout each of which the same time 
was to be used, while the time would vary one hour from 



CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 435 

one section to another. Thus, when it is twelve o'clock in 
New York, it is eleven at Chicago, ten at Denver, and nine 
at San Francisco, and the same in all parts of each section. 

Election of 1884. — In the Presidential nominations of 
1884 the Democrats selected for their candidates Grover 
Cleveland, governor of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, 
of Indiana. The Republican candidate for President was 
James G. Blaine, of Maine, a prominent statesman, who had 
been three times Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
John A. Logan was nominated for Vice-President. There 
were nominations also by the Prohibition and the Greenback 
parties. 

A number of independent Republicans,^ who were op- 
posed to Blaine, voted for Cleveland, and succeeded in elect- 
ing him. The election was very close, the result depending 
on the vote of New York, which went for Cleveland by a few 
hundred majority. Blaine received one hundred and eighty- 
two, Cleveland two hundred and nineteen electoral votes. 

5. Cleveland's B&ministratiou. 

Electoral Count Act. — The administration of President 
Cleveland ^ was marked by some important legislation. The 



^ These independent voters were nicknamed " Mugwumps." This is 
an Indian word, meaning "chief," but was applied to the independents 
as a term of contempt. 

■'' Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. Soon after his 
father moved to New York. At eighteen, his father having died and 
left him penniless, he began the study of law at Buffalo, and was ad- 
mitted to the bar in 1859. He began his political life in 1863, becom- 
ing successively assistant district attorney, sheriff, and mayor. His 
^igh reputation for integrity won him the nomination for governor of 
New York, and he was elected by a very large majority in 1882. His 
increasing reputation for unswerving honesty brought him the nomi- 
nation for President in 1884. 




436 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

trouble about the electoral count in 1876 and the murder 
of Garfield in 1881 had shown the necessity of ready means 
of deciding who should be President in 
any such contingency. In 1887 a bill 
was passed which left it to the States 
to decide any contest in them regarding 
the result of a Presidential election. 
Under this bill a decision has to be 
reached at least six days before the 
electors meet, and cannot be changed 
by Congress. 

gkuvkh ci.KVELANn. Interstate Commerce Act. — An- 

other important law enacted in 1887 was that known as the 
Interstate Commerce Act, which was intended to control 
railroad traffic from State to State. Its main purpose was 
to prevent unfair freight charges and passenger fares. The 
abuse of free passes was prohibited. A commission of five 
persons was appointed to oversee the execution of this law. 
Chinese Exclusion. — Another law of great importance 
was that passed in 1888 for the exclusion of Chinese laborers 
from this country. A treaty had been made with China in 
1868 which opened this country to Chinese immigration. 
By 1880 there were about one hundred thousand Chinese 
living in the United States. After that date they came much 
more rapidly, and much opposition was raised in the labor- 
ing classes, who claimed that the Chinese worked for ruin- 
ously low wages, brought no families with them, and in- 
tended to return to China as soon as they had made enough 
money to live on in their simple manner at home. 

The opposition, particularly in California, grew strong. 
An agreement was made with China in 1880, restricting 
immigration. The law of 1888 prohibited it. This law con- 
tinues in effect, and the number of Chinese in this country 



CLEVE;LAND'S ADMINISTRi^TIOlV. 437 

is decreasing, as many have returned home, and others can- 
not enter to replace them. 

Labor Troubles. — During the period now in considera- 
tion the organization of workingmen had greatly increased, 
wide-spread orders being formed under the names of " The 
Knights of Labor" and the " American Federation of Labor." 
The employers also formed combinations to protect their 
interests, and much dissatisfaction existed. This led, in 
1886, to numerous strikes, which took place in many parts 
of the country, and were attended in some cases by riotous 
actions. 

The Chicago Anarchists. — Of these riots the worst oc- 
curred in Chicago, where no less than forty thousand men 
went " on strike." On May 4 the disorder reached its 
highest point. On the evening of that day a crowd gath- 
ered near Haymarket Square, and were addressed by 
speakers in such violent language that the police attempted 
to disperse them. At this moment a dynamite bomb was 
thrown, which exploded and killed several of the policemen, 
while sixty were badly wounded. Men in the crowd also 
fired on the police. The officers returned the fire, killing 
and wounding a large number of the mob. 

The ringleaders of the mob were arrested and tried for 
murder. All but one were of foreign birth, and were found 
to belong to the organization known as Anarchists, whose 
object it is to overthrow all governments, — by violence, if it 
cannot be done by peaceful means. Four of the condemned 
were hanged and the others imprisoned for life. Their 
action was denounced by the workingmen throughout the 
country, and excited general horror and detestation. 

The Charleston Earthquake. — In the summer of 1886 
the most destructive earthquake known in this country to 
that date occurred at Cliarleston, S. C. So many buildings 



438 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

were shaken down or badly damaged as to cause a loss of 
over five million dollars, while many lives were lost. Aid 
was sent from all parts of the Union to the suffering people. 
Like Chicago and Boston after their fires, Charleston has 
fully recovered from this calamity. 

The Election of 1888.— In the election year of 1888 the 
Democratic party renominated Grover Cleveland, with Allen 
G. Thurman, of Ohio, for Vice-President. The Republicans 
nominated for President Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, 
grandson of the former President Harrison. Levi P. Morton, 
of New York, was nominated for Vice-President. The Pro- 
hibition and the United Labor parties also made nomina- 
tions. The election, as in 1884, was decided by the vote 
of New York, which now gave a plurality for the Republican 
candidate. Cleveland received one hundred and sixty-eight 
and Harrison two hundred and thirty-three electoral votes. 

6. Benjamin IHarrtson's B^ministration. 

The Oklahoma Opening. — In the beginning of Presi- 
dent Harrison's ' administration the Territory of Oklahoma 
was opened to white settlers. Oklahoma was a large tract, of 
over thirty-nine thousand square miles, in the western part 
of the former Indian Territory. The central section of it 
was purchased from the Indians, and settlers were permit- 
ted to enter it at noon on April 22, 1S89, at which hour some 
fifty thousand persons were waiting to take up claims under 



* Benjamin Harrison was born in Ohio in 1833. His great-grand- 
father was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and 
his grandfather President of the United States in 1840. He graduated 
in 1852 from Miami University, studied law, and in 1862 entered the 
army as second lieutenant of Indiana volunteers, ending as brevet 
brigadier-general. In 1880 he was elected United States Senator. 




BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 43a 

the land laws of the United States. When the signal was 
given by a bugle blast there was a wild rush across the border, 
and before night much of the terri- 
tory was staked out in claims, and 
several towns were begun. In 1890 
the new Territory had over sixty-one 
thousand population. Oklahoma was 
afterwards largely increased in size 
by the purchase of lands in the north 
and west of Indian Territory. 

New States. — The same year 
(1889) was marked by a notable 
addition to the number of States, benjaotn Harrison. 
no less than four new States being 

admitted to the Union. These were North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Montana, and Washington. In 1890 two other 
States, Idaho and Wyoming, were admitted. No equal 
addition to our family of States had been made in any pre- 
vious administration. 

The Johnstown Flood. — Shortly after Harrison took his 
seat a terrible disaster occurred in Central Pennsylvania, 
far surpassing the Chicago fire and the Charleston earthquake 
in the destruction of human life. On May 31, 1889, a large 
dam gave way, and a torrent of water forty feet high swept 
down the Conemaugh Valley toward Johnstown, several' 
miles below. This busy manufacturing town was almost 
completely swept away, about two thousand two hundred 
persons were drowned, and ten million dollars' worth of 
property was destroyed. The whole country vied in fur- 
nishing supplies for the suffering survivors. 

Pan-American Congress. — An interesting event of the 
autumn of 1889 was the meeting at Washington of the Pan- 
American Congress, composed of delegates from the United 



440 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

States, Mexico, and the nations of Central and South Amer- 
ica. Its purpose was to bring these nations into a close 
union for commercial and other advantages. It was recom- 
mended that all disputes between these nations should be 
settled by arbilralion. Later Congresses were held at Mexico 
in 1901 and Rio de Janeiro in 1906. 

Trouble with Chile. — The wisdom of the arbitration 
suggestion was soon proved, for in 1891 the United States 
and the republic of Chile were brought to the verge of war. 
A revolution had broken out in Chile, and during its course 
some sailors from an American war-vessel were attacked in 
Valparaiso and two of them killed. For a time it looked 
as if serious trouble would result, but in the end Chile apol- 
ogized, and contributed a satisfactory sum for the families 
of the slain men. 

Trouble with Italy. — Another international difficulty 
arose from the murder of the chief of police of New 
Orleans by assassins who were believed to belong to a 
secret society of Italians. A number of men were ar- 
rested, of whom six were acquitted, and others held for 
trial. These, eleven in number, were taken from jail by a 
mob, in March, 1891, and executed under what is known as 
" lynch law." 

The Italian government protested against this illegal exe- 
"cution of its subjects and demanded reparation. This the 
United States refused, saying that the matter must be settled 
by the State of Louisiana, whereupon the Italian minister 
left Washington, and for a time it seemed as if war would 
ensue.' In the end the United States agreed to provide sup- 
port for the tamilies of those of the victims who were proved 
Id be Italian citizens. 

The Bering- Sea Difficulty. — Still another international 
trouble arose during the Harrison administration. This was 



BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 441 

in relation to the slaughter of fur seals in Bering Sea by 
Canadians. The United States claimed the right to control 
the seal-fisheries, and sent out armed vessels to capture 
the sealers. A controversy arose with the British govern- 
ment, but in the end the matter was settled by arbitration. 
The seals are still permitted to be killed at sea under certain 
restrictions, and the danger of their extermination continues. 

Indian Troubles. — Troubles with hostile Indians had 
been largely brought to an end by the measures taken in 
the recent administrations. But in 1890 there was a threat- 
ened outbreak of the Sioux from the behef that an Indian 
Messiah was coming to avenge their wrongs. Several thou- 
sand of them gathered in December at Wounded Knee, 
South Dakota. Here the troops tried to disarm them, and 
a battle took place, in which about two hundred were 
killed. It seems likely to be the last Indian outbreak. 

Pensions. — The United States has long paid pensions to 
invalid soldiers, and in 1890 a bill was passed granting pen- 
sions to all former soldiers unable to earn a living. Under 
this law the number of pensioners greatly increased and the 
payments in 1893 exceeded one hundred and fifty million 
dollars. In 1904 all soldiers over sixty-two years of age 
were placed on the pension list, old age being declared a dis- 
ability to earn a living. In 1907 and again in 1912 the 
amount paid to })ensioners was considerably increased. 

Copyrig-ht. — Another important act was one providing 
for international copyright. Previously to this period any 
publisher could print a foreign book without paying a 
royalty to the author. The new law put a stop to this 
practice, which many regarded as a species of piracy. 

The McKinley TariflF. — From the period of the Civil War 
the tariff had remained practically unchanged. The Re- 
publicans had continued in power except during the Cleve- 



442 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

land administration, and then they had the control of Con- 
gress, so that no tariff bill lowering the duties could be 
passed. In 1890 a new tariff bill, known as the McKinley 
tariff, was enacted. By it sugar and other articles were 
made free of duty, the duty was lowered on many articles, 
but it was considerably increased on various others, such 
as wool. It was advocated not as a revenue, but as a pro- 
tection measure, it being passed with the purpose of aiding 
American manufactures. 

One of its features was known as the " reciprocity meas- 
ure." By this certain articles were admitted free of duty 
if the countries from which they came admitted certain 
American articles free. This applied principally to the 
nations of America, but there was reciprocity also with 
some European nations. 

The Sherman Silver Bill. — Another act passed in 1890 
was what is known as the Sherman Silver Bill. This mod- 
ified the Bland Silver Bill of 1878 by providing that four 
million five hundred thousand ounces of silver should be 
purchased every month, at market price, and paid for by 
notes redeemable in coin. This silver bullion was to be 
coined into dollars. 

The Census of 1890. — The census of the population, 
taken in 1890, showed that there were in this country 
62,622,250 people. The first census, taken in 1790, a 
hundred years before, gave a population of 3,929,214. In 
a century the population had increased more than fifty- 
eight millions. 

The Australian Ballot. — During the Harrison adminis- 
tration an important change took place in the manner of 
voting. More secrecy in voting was needed, and this was 
gained by the use of a system devised in Australia, and 
which has now been adopted by nearly all the States of 



BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 443 

this country. By its use, any one who wishes can make 
his vote absolutely secret. 

The Homestead Strike. — In 1892 occurred a serious 
labor trouble, arising from a great strike in the Carnegie 
Steel-Works at Homestead, near Pittsburg. The proprie- 
tors hired a force of detectives to protect their works. 
These were fired upon by the strikers and taken prisoners, 
men being killed on both sides. The disturbance grew 
so great that the whole militia of Pennsylvania had to be 
called out, and the works to be guarded for several weeks 
before order was restored. The expense was great to the 
State, and still greater to the company and the workmen. 

Important Anniversaries. — During the period now under 
consideration several important anniversaries were cele- 
brated in this country. In 1881 the centennial anniver- 
sary of the surrender of Cornwallis was celebrated at York- 
town. In 1882 Philadelphia celebrated the bicentennial of 
the landing of William Penn, and in 1887 the centennial of 
the Constitutional Convention, the latter with imposing in- 
dustrial and military processions. In 1889 the centennial 
anniversary of Washington's inauguration was celebrated 
in New York with grand naval and military reviews and a 
trade procession. 

World's Columbian Exposition. — But the most impor- 
tant of these occasions was that of the four hundredth 
anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. 
This was celebrated by a naval parade of all nations in 
New York harbor, and by processions and demonstrations 
elsewhere, but in particular by the World's Columbian Ex- 
position at Chicago, whose buildings were dedicated with 
imposing ceremonies, extending from the 21st to the 23d 
of October, 1892. 

The Exposition, which was opened May 1, 1893, and 

ii9 



444 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 



continued for six months, was in some respects the most 
striking ever seen. In the beauty of its buildings and 
grounds it has never been equalled. The attendance ex- 
ceeded twenty-seven millions, — more than double that of 
the Centennial Exposition of 1876. 




■PHE Court op Honor at Cmc&fltt. 



In the succeeding winter (1893-94) a " Mid-winter Expo- 
sition" was held at San Francisco, and in 1895 a " Cotton 
States and International Exposition" was held at Atlanta, 
both extensive in scope, handsome in ap])ointments, and 
attracting large numbers of visitors. 

The Election of 1892. — In the Congressional election of 
1890 the RepublicaiiS'Were severely defeated, their major- 
ity of twenty-one in the House of Representatives being 
changed to a Democratic majority of one hundred and 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 445 

thirty-five. They met with a similar defeat in the Presi- 
dential election of 1892. In this the Republicans renomi- 
nated Benjamin Harrison, and the Democrats Grover 
Cleveland. Harrison received one hundred and forty-five 
and Cleveland two hundred and seventy-seven electoral 
votes. Whitelaw Reid, of New York, was the Republican, 
and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, the Democratic, candi- 
date for Vice-President. There was a Prohibition candi- 
date, and also one by a new party, recently organized. 

The People's Party. — From 1873 onward several politi- 
cal organizations of the farming population had appeared. 
In 1889 these were organized into a party known as the 
National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union. This in 
1892 was absorbed into the People's party, a new organi- 
zation embracing many of the labor elements of the coun- 
try. This party, generally known as the Populist, nominated 
James B. Weaver, of Iowa, and gained twenty-two electoral 
votes. It also elected several Senators and Representa- 
tives. 

7. ClevelanD's Secon& Bbminlstration. 

Democratic Supremacy. — For the first time since 1860 
the Democratic party had now a majority in all branches 
of the government, and were able to legislate in accordance 
with the principlef of the party. They had a large major- 
ity in the House and a small one in the Senate. This 
continued until 1895, when another change in political 
sentiment gave the Republicans a very large majority in 
the House, while the Senate became ecjually divided be- 
tween the two parties. 

The Business Depression of 1893. — This marked change 
in poliacal feeling was undoubtedly due to a very severe 
business depression, which began shortly after the inaugu- 



446 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

ration of the President, and continued with little alleviation 
throughout his term of office. The value of property greatly 
decreased, failures became very numerous, hosts of work- 
men were thrown out of employment, and the wages of 
others were reduced. The result of this was shown in 
great strikes and in other ways. 

The Coxey Army. — In 1894 an Ohio horse-dealer named 
Coxey started with an " army" of the unemployed to 
Washington, to demand relief from the government. The 
idea spread, and other companies started from California 
and Texas. They were partly made up of workmen, partly 
of tramps and adventurers. Coxey reached Washington 
with his " army," but the matter there ended, and his fol- 
lowers soon dispersed. 

The Pullman Strike. — A more important result of the 
hard times was a great railroad strike in Chicago in 1894. 
It began with a strike of the workmen in the Pullman car- 
building shops, and extended to railroad men, who refused 
to take out trains containing Pullman cars. The movement 
of trains was greatly interfered with, much railroad prop- 
erty was destroyed, and in the end the President sent United 
States troops to Chicago ,to maintain order and protect the 
movement of the mails. 

The Sherman Act Repealed. — President Cleveland, be.^ 
lieving that the business depression was caused by the large 
purchases and coinage of silver under the Sherman Act, 
called a special m.eeting of Congress in 1893, which, after 
long deliberation, passed a bill prohibiting further purchases. 
The bullion accumulated in the Treasury was still coined, 
but no new silver was bought. 

The Wilson Tariff. — In 1894 a new tariff bill was passed, 
known, from its promoter, as the Wilson Tariff. It retained 
to some degree the principle of protection, though it re- 



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CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 447 

duced the duties on many articles, while wool, salt, and 
lumber were put upon the free list. The President did not 
sign the bill, as it did not meet his views, but he allowed it 
to become law without his signature. 

Civil Service Reform. — President Cleveland in his first 
term, and President Harrison later, had added largely to 
the offices filled by competitive examination. During his 
second term Cleveland added enormously to the number 
of such offices, and at present nearly all minor positions 
under the government, except those of fourth-class post- 
masters, are filled in this manner. 

Foreign Affairs. — Several important questions of foreign 
relations arose during this administration. The people of 
Hawaii deposed their queen, and asked for annexation to 
the United States. This the President declined, and the 
Hawaiian Islands were made a republic. 

A second matter concerned the dispute between Vene- 
zuela and British Guiana in relation to the boundary line. 
This had long existed, and in 1895 President Cleveland 
called the attention of Congress to it. He reaffirmed the 
Monroe Doctrine, and declared that this country could not 
permit Great Britain to act unjustly toward Venezuela. A 
commission was appointed to investigate the subject. In 
the latter part of 1896 the dispute was settled by Great 
Britain consenting to submit the matter to arbitration. By 
this successful negotiation the importance of the Monroe 
Doctrine has been greatly increased. 

An insurrection having broken out in Cuba, and gaining 
great headway, the President was called upon to accord the 
rights of belligerents to the insurrectionists. This he de- 
clined to do, but indicated that the time might soon come 
when it would be requisite. 



448 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

National Parks and Forest Reservations. — Among the 
important matters of legislation since the Civil War, not the 
least important is the setting aside of several regions of 
natural beauty or wonder as National Parks, such as the 
Yosemrte Valley, the Yellowstone geyser region, and the 
sequoia groves ; and of such leading battle-fields as Get- 
tysburg, Chickamauga, etc. In addition to these, an act 
was passed in 1891 which provided for a series of national 
forest reservations. The total area set aside under this and 
later laws includes more than one hundred and eighty mil- 
lion acres. The purpose is to guard the sources of the 
rivers by the preservation of the mountain woodlands. 

Active efforts have also been made to utilize the streams 
of the western mountains for the irrigation of the wide- 
spread arid region. Under a law passed in 1902 the 
government is now building huge dams to hold back the 
mountain streams and convert them into great irrigation 
reservoirs. In this way, millions of acres of former desert 
are being changed into fertile farm-lands. 

Admission of Utah. — On January 4, 1896, the Territory 
of Utah was proclaimed a State, it being the forty-fifth 
State of the American Union. Its constitution gives the suf- 
frage to women. Woman suffrage has existed in Wyoming 
since 1869 and in Colorado since 1893, and was voted for 
and adopted in Idaho in the election of 1896. It has since 
that date been greatly extended. See pages 477 and 497. 

The New Navy. — The Civil War of the United States 
proved conclusively that the era of wooden vessels in the 
navies of the world was at an end, and that the battle-ship 
of the future must be heavily plated with iron or steel and 
armed with guns of great range and power. Y^et this coun- 
try was slow in applying the lesson it had taught. For 
twenty years after the war almost nothing was done for the 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 



449 



improvement of the navy. Then an active building of steel- 
plated war-vessels began, and to-day the navy of the United 
States possesses some of the swiftest and most powerful 




Fleet of United States War- Vessels in Harbor. 

cruisers and battle-ships of the world. It has so rapidly 
developed that it now stands second in rank among the 
great navies of the world. 

The Election of 1896. — In the Presidential campaign of 
1896 new parties and new views came into the contest. The 
Republicans nominated William McKinley, whose name was 
associated with the protective pohcy, with the expectation 
that the campaign would be conducted on the tariff issue. 
For Vice-President they nominated Garret A. Hobart, of 
New Jersey. 

Their expectation was not realized. The Democratic 
convention adopted a platform whose principal demand was 
for "the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the present 
legal ratio of sixteen to one," — that is, sixteen ounces of 
silver was to be considered equal in value to one ounce of 
gold, and all silver offered to the government was to be 



450 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

coined. William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, an earnest " free sil- 
ver" advocate, received the nomination. Arthur M. Sewall, 
of Maine, was nominated for Vice-President. 

The People's party accepted the Democratic candidate 
and policy, though making a different nomination for Vice- 
President. Many of the delegates to the Democratic Con- 
vention, hov^^ever, refused to be bound by its action, and 
subsequently met in convention and nominated candidates 
on a gold standard platform. Nominations were also made 
by the Prohibition and Socialist-Labor parties. 

The Campaign. — In the election campaign the tariff 
question disappeared, and " free silver" on the one side and 
" honest money" on the other were the battle-cries of the 
two parties. Silver had depreciated in value until a dollar 
in silver was worth liltle more than a half-dollar in gold. 
The Republicans, therefore, held that the adoption of the 
Democratic policy would be ruinous. The Democrats, on 
the other hand, maintained that silver, if freely coined, 
would regain its former value, and that the country was 
suffering for lack of currency. 

The South and much of the West favored the Demo- 
cratic views ; the North and East, the Republican. There 
followed an unusually active and exciting campaign, which 
ended in a victory for the Republicans, McKinley receiving 
two hundred and seventy-one, Bryan one hundred and 
seventy-six electoral votes. 

8. /IDclkiulcxVs B^lnin(3tratlon. 

The Needs of the Government. — On the 4th of March, 
1897, William McKinley was formally inaugurated President 
of the United States. A few days afterward he called Con- 
gress together in extra session for the purpose of consider- 
ing the financial condition of the country, which was the 




McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION. 451 

reverse of satisfactory. For several years the country had 
been running into debt, the revenue not being sufficient to 
meet the annual expenses of the govern- 
ment, so that more than one hundred 
million dollars had been added to the 
public debt of the United States. Con- 
gress was asked to provide new sources 
of revenue, which the President be- 
heved could be best done by aid of a 
higher tariff on imported goods. He 
also thought that this would aid in over- 
coming the business depression, which 

T T I- -I n 1 \ William McKinley. 

had contmued tor several years. A 
new tariff bill, with higher rates of duty than those of the 
Wilson Tariff, was prepared and passed, becoming law by 
the signature of the President in July, 1897. 

The Overflow of the Mississippi. — Meanwhile, a great 
disaster had taken place in the West. The winter had been 
severe and deep snows covered the ground. Under the 
influence of heavy spring rains and warm winds which 
melted these snows, the rivers of the West rose to a dan- 
gerous height and poured their surging waters into the 
Mississippi, until in April that great stream reached a height 
it had never before attained. Despite the labors of thou- 
sands of people, the banks or levees gave way at many 
points and thousands of square miles of the fertile lands on 
both sides of the river were deeply overflowed, while many 
of the people lost their lives. Great destitution and much 
suffering prevailed, and it was not until late in the spring 
that the overflowing waters returned to their proper chan- 
nel, leaving wide-spread ruin in the country around. 

Gold in Alaska. — In the summer of 1897 it became 
known that rich deposits of gold had been found along the 



452 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

Klondike, a branch of the Yukon River of Alaska. The 
routes to that locality were difficult and dangerous, and 
the winter cold very severe ; but thousands of miners and 
others hurried thither, and large quantities of gold were 
obtained. The Klondike is in Canada, but gold has also 
been discovered at Cape Nome, on the coast of Alaska, and 
may be found in many other places. 

The Cuban Situation. — Meanwhile, it began to appear as 
if war with Spain might arise from the insurrection in Cuba. 
The effort of Spain to suppress this insurrection was being 
conducted with a cruelty that shocked the moral sense of 
the American people and awakened universal sympathy for 
the suffering Cubans. ' General Weyler, the governor general 
of the island, believed that the rebels were supplied with 
food and shelter by the country people, and devised a plan 
to prevent this. These poor unfortunates, mostly women 
and children and old men, were driven by soldiers into the 
towns and around the forts ; their dwellings were burned 
and their crops rooted up ; they were threatened with death 
if they disobeyed the order or attempted to escape ; nothing 
was left them but to starve, for the people of the towns had 
little food to spare and no available provision was made for 
their support. 

As a result they fell into the deepest misery, and multi- 
tudes of them starved to death. More than two hundred 
thousand of these suffering people perished of sickness and 
starvation before the beginning of 1898. The people of the 
United States sent them much food, but the destitution 
became too great to be overcome by charity, and the suffer- 
ing was of the most terrible kind. 

American Feeling. — This dreadful state of affairs, due 
to General Weylcr's cruelty, was viewed with deep indig- 
nation by the American people. It was evident that the 



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McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION. 453 

rebellion could never be overcome by the Spanish method 
of fighting or by Weyler's desire of starving the people, and 
that in. the end the United States might be forced to inter- 
fere in the interest of humanity. A strong sentiment in 
favor of war arose, and warlike preparations were made by 
both the United States and Spain, 

The Sinking- of the Maine, — In January, 1898, a riot 
broke out in the city of Havana, in which the Americans 
were thought to be in danger. In consequence, the battle- 
ship Maine was sent to Havana harbor as a measure of 
protection. A dreadful event followed. On the night of 
February 15 a mine exploded under the Maine with such 
terrible force that the great battle-ship was torn asunder 
and sent to the bottom with most of her crew. In this 
frightful moment two hundred and sixty-four of the crew 
and two of the officers were killed or mortally injured. 
When tidings of this terrible affair reached the United States 
the excitement and indignation were universal. It was very 
generally believed that the mine had been set off by Spanish 
officials, and revenge was demanded on all sides, 

"War Measures, — Congress was as indignant as the 
people, and preparations for war were rapidly made. The 
naval court of inquiry, which fully investigated the sinking 
of the Maine, decided that the disaster was due to an ex- 
plosion from the outside, and, therefore, to a mine of dyna- 
mite or other powerful explosive lying under the bottom of 
the ship, which must have been placed there by Spanish 
hands. The war spirit now grew intense. On April 11 
President McKinley sent a message to Congress asking for 
authority to put an end to the Cuban war by force of arms, 
since Spain continued her cruel measures. This authority 
was given by act of Congress, and on the 20th a final mes- 
sage was sent to Spain, ordering her to remove her land and 



454 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

naval forces from Cuba, and giving her until noon of April 
23 for a reply. Spain at once sent the United States min- 
ister his passport, which was equivalent to a declaration of 
war. The blockade of Havana and the adjoining coast of 
Cuba by the American fleet w^as immediately ordered, and 
on April 25 war w^as declared, dating back to April 21. 

Commodore Dewey's Squadron. — The United States, 
at that tiuie, had three squadrons in Atlantic w^aters, and 
one, under Commodore George Dewey, in Pacific waters at 
Ilong Kong, China. Not far distant lay the large island 
group of the Philippines, held by Spain, and Dewey re- 
ceived orders to proceed to Manila, their capital city, and 
capture or destroy the Spanish fleet at that point. 

The Manila Naval Battle. — Dewey's ships entered 
Manila Bay on the night of April 30, and early the next 
morning he made an attack on the Spanish fleet, keeping 
up a hot fire for two hours, when he drew off to refit. 
The attack was resumed about noon, and kept up until all 
the Spanish ships were on fire and had sunk and their men 
were killed or prisoners. Not a ship had been seriously in- 
jured nor a man killed on the American side, the victory 
being the most notable one in our naval history. 

The Spanish Cape Verde Squadron. — A squadron of 
Spanish ships, which lay at the Cape Verde Islands, com- 
manded by Admiral Cervera, crossed the Atlantic in early 
May, and reached the West India waters about the 12th. 
Eluding Commodore Schley, who had been sent to inter- 
cept him, Cervera reached the Cuban harbor of Santiago. 
Here he was blockaded by Admiral Sampson's fleet. 

The Sinking of the Merrimac. — On the 3d of June an 
effort was made to block up the Spanish ships in the har- 
bor, by sinking a large coaling vessel, the Merrimac, in the 



McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 455 

narrow entrance. The work was skillfully managed by- 
Lieutenant R. P. Hobson and a volunteer crew, but failed 
through an injury to the rudder by a shot. The ship was 
sunk, but lay lengthwise instead of across the channel, and 
left room to pass it. Hobson and his men were captured, 
but w^ere soon afterwards exchanged. 

The Army of Invasion. — While this was going on an 
army of invasion was being gathered. A large force of 
volunteers had been called out and the regular army in- 
creased, and on June 14 a force of 15,000 men, under 
Major General Shaffer, sailed from Tampa, Florida, and a 
few days later landed in Cuba at a point called Baiquiri, 
fifteen miles east of Santiago. 

Roosevelt's Rough Riders. — It was a poor landing-place, 
and the army was set in motion before its supplies could be 
got on shore. The road leading to Santiago was a mere 
mud track through thick buslies, passing at places over 
steep hills. In advance of the army marched several troops 
of dismounted cavalry, the regulars taking a lower road and 
the volunteers, popularly known as " Roosevelt's Rough 
Riders," following a road over the hills. They were attacked 
by a large body of Spaniards in ambush, and a fierce fight 
took place. The Americans lost a considerable number in 
killed and wounded, but they pushed on, drove the Spaniards 
from the bush, killed many of them, and won the victory. 

Condition of the Army. — The 30th of June found the 
American army facing the Spanish works in front of San- 
tiago. The Spaniards were strongly intrenched on a hill 
known as San Juan, and in the village of El Caney. The 
difficult roads had prevented the bringing of guns and sup- 
plies to the front, and the army had but three days' rations 
and only four batteries of light artillery. The heat was 
intense, and the clothes of the soldiers were so heavy that 



456 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

half of them had been thrown away. General Shafter had 
been overcome by the heat and lay in his tent two miles 
back. But in spite of all this he determined to fight, and 
gave orders for a battle the next day. 

The Battle of Santiago. — Early on July 1 the army ad- 
vanced. There was so little artillery that infantry charges 
had to be depended upon. The Rough Riders and other 
regiments charged up the steep San Juan hill in the face of 
a hot fire and drove the Spanish from their works. The 
same was the case at El Caney. Here the battle continued 
most of the day, charge after charge being made. In the 
end the Spaniards were driven back with great loss. On 
the next day the Spaniards made a desperate effort to 
regain their lost works. It was in vain, the Americans held 
every foot of ground they had won, and the Spanish army 
was driven to its inner line of defences. The American 
loss was over fifteen hundred in killed and wounded ; that 
of the Spaniards was much greater. 

Fate of the Spanish Fleet. — On July 3 the Spanish fleet 
made a desperate effort to escape. Passing the sunken 
Merrimac, the four cruisers dashed at full speed out of the 
harbor, firing as they fled. Behind them came two torpedo- 
boats. Admiral Sampson being temporarily absent, Com- 
modore Schley was in control of the fleet. One of its leading 
ships was the battle-ship Oregon, which had joined the fleet 
after a thirteen thousand mile journey from San Francisco 
around Cape Horn. The American fire was so fierce and 
sure that one after another of the Spanish ships was set on 
fire and driven ashore. The two torpedo-boats were sunk 
by an armed yacht, the Gloucester. The Cristobal Colon 
ran about fifty miles along the coast, but was chased so 
sharply by the Brooklyn and the Oregon that she, too, was 
driven ashore, and the victory made complete. Most of the 



McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION. 457 

Spanish sailors had been killed, and the remainder were 
taken prisoners. Of the Americans, only one man was killed. 
It was a victory equal to that in the harbor of Manila. 

Surrender of the Spanish Army. — The Spanish were 
strongly intrenched in Santiago, but food was scarce and 
they were surrounded, while their fleet was lost. A demand 
for their surrender was made by General Shatter. After 
a week or two of debate it was acceded to, and all the 
Spanish soldiers in the eastern end of Cuba were sur- 
rendered as prisoners of war, the American government 
agreeing to send them back to Spain. 

Financial Measures. — While the war was going on the 
government at Washington was taking active steps for its 
support. Before the war began Congress had voted fifty 
milUon dollars for defence. Two hundred million dollars 
were afterward borrowed from the people at an interest 
rate of three per cent. To pay the expenses of the war an 
internal tax was laid on the country. Documents of nearly 
all kinds had to be stamped, and various other things were 
taxed, 

Hawaii Annexed. — In July a final vote was taken in 
Congress on the question of annexing the Hawaiian Islands 
in the Pacific Ocean. The bill passed the Senate on July 
6, and was signed by the President on July 7. This act of 
Congress added a large and fertile group of islands to the 
United States. In 1 900 they were given a territorial govern- 
ment, under the name of the Territory of Hawaii. 

Porto Rico Invaded. — Shortly after the surrender of the 
Spaniards at Santiago, Major-General Miles took a large 
army to the island of Porto Rico. Little opposition was 
made by the Spanish soldiers, and soon a large section of 
that fertile island was in American hands. The people 
there gave a glad welcome to the American soldiers, and 



458 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

loudly cheered the American flag. They "Avere eager to es- 
cape from the rule of Spain. 

The Capture of Manila. — After the defeat of the Spanish 
fleet at Manila, a large force of soldiers, under General 
Merritt, and several powerful war-ships were sent to rein- 
force Admiral Dewey. On July 31 an unsuccessful effort 
was made by the Spanish garrison of Manila, during a vio- 
lent storm, to surprise the American camp ; and on August 
13 the city was taken by a combined assault of the Ameri- 
can army and fleet. The natives of the island had, during 
this period, kept up a close investment and siege of the 
city. After its capture they became hostile to the Ameri- 
cans, and u severe conflict with them began in February, 
1899, as described on the following pages. 

A Treaty of Peace. — Meanwhile, Spain, in despair of 
success, asked for terms of peace, and a protocol, or pre- 
liminary treaty, was drawn up and signed on August 12, 
and hostilities came to an end. Soon after, peace commis- 
sioners were appointed by the United States and Spain, 
and met at Paris, where they concluded a formal treaty of 
peace on December 10. This treaty was ratified by the 
United States Senate on February 6, 1899, was signed by 
the Queen Regent of Spain on March 17, and was received 
in Washington on April 11, and the ratified treaties were 
exchanged. Immediately the President issued a proclama- 
tion that peace was restored, and appointed a United States 
minister to Spain. 

Terms of the Treaty. — By the treaty Spain granted the 
independence of Cuba and ceded to the United States the 
islands of Porto Rico and Guam and the Philippine Archi- 
pelago. For the latter the United States agreed to pay 
Spain $20,000,000, as an indemnity for the public buildings 
and other improvements in the islands. 



McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION. 459 

Philippine Affairs. — The treaty with Spain was finally 
consummated on July 3, 1899, on which day it was ratified 
by the Spanish Senate. Meanwhile, the |20,000,000 paid 
by the United States had not secured for that country the 
Philippine Islands, Under a daring and able leader, Emilio 
Aguinaldo, the people of the island of Luzon broke out in 
insurrection and began a war for independence, and on the 
night of February 4, 1899, an assault in force was made on 
the American outposts at Manila. It ended in the repulse 
of the assailants, who were driven back from the vicinity 
of the city. 

Advance of the Army. — The advance of the American 
forces against the Filipinos began on March 25. It met 
with considerable resistance, but Malolos, Aguinaldo's capi- 
tal, was occupied on the 31st, and in the succeeding months 
a number of Filipino strongholds were taken. In July the 
coming on of the rainy season put an end to active opera- 
tions, but they were resumed in the autumn with great 
success, the natives no longer strongly maintaining their 
positions against the American troops. 

Efforts for Peace. — Efforts were made in vain for a 
peaceful solution of the difficulty. A Philippine Commis- 
sion visited the islands, and offered the natives a system of 
government under which they would have enjoyed a large 
measure of liberty, but Aguinaldo refused to accept any- 
thing less than complete independence. 

Dewey Honored. — Meanwhile, the distinguished services 
of Commodore Dewey had been rewarded ; at first by his 
promotion to the rank of rear-admiral, afterwards, on March 
3, 1899, to that of admiral, — the highest rank in the Ameri- 
can navy, and one which only Farragut and Porter had 
previously enjoyed. 

Outcome of the "War. — During 1 900 the conflict in the 

30 



460 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

Philippines degenerated into a guerilla warfare, of very an- 
noying character, which continued into 1901. A new com- 
mission, with enhanced powers, visited the islands in the 
latter part of 1900 and arranged a system of civil govern- 
ment which many of the natives accepted, and which 
promised to bring peace and prosperity to the islands. 

The Troubles in China. — While these events were pro- 
ceeding in the Philippines a serious outbreak took place in 
the neighboring empire of China, a warlike society known 
as " Boxers'' attacking the missionaries, and finally entering 
Peking and besieging the foreign ministers in their legations. 
The German minister was killed, and the others were saved 
from death only by an advance on the capital of a strong 
force of allied troops, including a detachment of American 
soldiers. Peking was captured in August, 1900, the min- 
isters were rescued, and negotiations with the Chinese 
authorities began, ending in the exaction of very severe 
terms of retribution for the unparalleled outrage. 

Re-election of President McKinley. — In the Presidential 
campaign of 1900 William McKinley and William J. Bryan, 
the candidates of 1896, were renominated, the respective 
candidates for the Vice-Presidency being Theodore Roose- 
velt, Governor of New York, and Adlai E. Stevenson, late 
Vice-President. The election resulted in the return of the 
Republican candidates by a greater majority than in 1896, 
McKinley receiving two hundred and ninety-two electoral 
votes, Bryan one hundred and fifty-five. A bill had been 
passed by Congress, March 6, 1900, making the gold dollar 
the standard of value in American money, and the demand 
for the free coinage of silver was now supplanted by the 
questions of the trusts or business combinations and Amer- 
ican control in the Philippine Islands. The second inaugu- 
ration of President McKinley took place on March 4, 1901. 



McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION. 461 

Pan-American Exposition. — Of the events of 1901, one 
of the most notable was an exposition held at Buffalo, New 
York, for the purpose of displaying the products of the 
American republics. It was on a much smaller scale than 
the World's Fairs of 1876 and 1893, but formed a beautiful 
and artistic exhibition, its vari-colored buildings being very 
attractive and its electrical display far surpassing anything 
of the kind ever before seen. On December 1, 1901, an 
attractive " South Carolina, Interstate, and West Indian 
Exposition" was opened at Charleston, South Carolina. 

Census of 1900. — An important event of the year 1900 
was the taking of the twelfth census of the United States. 
This gave a total population of 76,303,387, being an in- 
crease of more than 13,000,000 since 1890. Of this popu- 
lation, the foreign born numbered 10,460,085 ; the colored, 
8,840,789; the Indian, 266,861 ; the Chinese, 119,050; and 
the Japanese, 85,986. Many of these Chinese and the bulk 
of the Japanese were in the Hawaiian Islands, which had 
been made a Territory of the United States on April 30, 
1900. The census showed one city, New York, of over 
three millions population ; two, Chicago and Philadelphia, 
of considerably over one million each ; three, St. Louis, 
Boston, and Baltimore, of over half a million each ; thirty- 
two between one hundred thousand and half a million, and 
a total of one hundred and fifty-nine cities of over twenty- 
five thousand population. The number of cities of over 
one hundred thousand population had nearly doubled in 
twenty years. 

Capture of Aguinaldo. — In March, 1901, an important 
event occurred in the Philippine Islands in the capture of 
Aguinaldo, the leader of the insurrection. This was accom- 
plished through strategy by General Frederick Funston, a 
soldier who had greatly distinguished himself in the Philip- 



462 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

pine war. As a result many of the leaders surrendered, 
and the conflict soon came to an end. On July 1, 1902, 
civil government in the Philippines was established, William 
H. Taft being made Governor, and most of the official posi- 
tions filled by natives of the islands. Schools were opened, 
trade developed, and satisfaction with American rule grew 
general. A Pacific telegraph cable from San Francisco to 
Manila was laid, the first message being sent July 4, 1903. 

Affairs in Porto Rico. — The treaty of peace with Spain 
had made Porto Rico a dependency of the United States. 
Shortly afterwards a hurricane swept the island, doing im- 
mense damage and causing great suffering among the people. 
They suffered also from tariff discrimination. A bill was 
therefore passed reducing the tariff, under which business 
was resumed. Subsequently free trade with the United 
States was instituted, and business became prosperous and 
the people contented. 

The Samoan Treaty. — By a treaty concluded in Decem- 
ber, 1899, the Samoan islands were divided between Ger- 
many and the United States, the latter country gaining the 
island of Tutuila and some smaller islands. The value of 
the acquisition lay in the harbor of Pago Pago, probably 
the finest in the Pacific Ocean. 

Assassination of President McKinley. — The second 
term of President McKinley was brought to a sudden and 
disastrous termination. On the 6th of September, 1901, 
during a visit to the Pan-American Exposition, he was shot 
by an anarchist while receiving the people. The assassin, 
Leon Czolgosz by name, held a pistol in his hand. concealed 
by a handkerchief, and, as the President was about to shake 
hands with him, discharged the weapon twice. The exalted 
victim survived for more than a week, and strong hopes of 
his recovery were entertained, but his hurt proved fatal, and 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION. 



463 



he died on September 14. This tragic event excited grief 
throughout tlie country and called forth many messages of 
condolence and sympathy from foreign lands. The days of 
mourning continued until the 19th, when the final funeral 
ceremonies took place at Canton, Ohio, the late President's 
place of residence. 



9. IRooseveirs H&mini8tration. 

Aocession of President Roosevelt. — On the day of 
President McKinley's death Theodore Roosevelt,' the Vice- 
President, took the oath of office at 
Buffalo, and was installed as the 
twenty-sixth President of the United 
States. He pledged himself to main- 
tain the policy of the late President, 
and began his career with a rigid 
observance of the principles of Civil 
Service Reform, refusing to make 
appointments to office on any stand- 
ard but that of merit. His first mes- 
sage to Congress, in December, 1901, 
indicated that he thoroughly under- 
stood the situation and would administer the duties of his 
high office with discretion and firmness. He soon showed 
an activity in the cause of reform and a disregard of party 
affiliations that won him the admiring support of a large 
body of the people. 




Copyright, 1906, by Clinedinst. 

Theodore Roosevet.t. 



* Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City in 1858, was 
educated in the laAV at Harvard University, afterwards took an active 
part in politics and made rapid progress in official position. He served 
in the New York legislature as a reform member, was a Civil Service 
Commissioner, president of the Board of Police of New York City, and 



464 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

The Cuban Republic. — The island of Cuba, recently 
frecxl from the power of Spain by the United States, 
adopted a constitution as an independent republic in 1900, 
and on May 20, 1902, the United States troops were with- 
drawn from the island, the Republic of Cuba coming into 
legal existence on that day. In 1906, a revolt having 
broken out on the island which the government was unable 
to suppress, the United States, in accordance with its re- 
served rights, intervened in the interest of peace and har- 
mony. Troops were sent to tlie island and a provisional 
government was established. The disorder ending, these 
were withdrawn in January, 1909, and Cuba was once 
more left to govern itself. 

The Isthmian Canal. — The project of making an Ameri- 
can ship-canal from the Atlantic to the Pacific had long been 
entertained and a French company had sought to construct 
such a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, while the United 
States proposed to excavate one across Nicaragua by way 
of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan River. This plan was 
abandoned in 1902 in favor of the proposition of the French 
Company to sell their partly completed work for $40,000,000. 
Unsuccessful negotiations with Colombia for the necessary 
rights led to the secession of Panama from that country and 
its establishment as an independent republic. With this 

in 1897 Assistant Secretary of the Navy. In 1898 he took active part 
in the war with Spain, and won popular favor by his gallantry as 
leader of the "Rough Riders." Later in the year he was elected 
Governor of New York, and by 1900 had gained so high a standing in 
public esteem that he was nominated and elected Vice-President of the 
United States, The assassination of McKinley made him President, 
he being the youngest man to hold that oflBce. He had been an active 
hunter and rancher in the West and was the author of valuable works 
on hunting, biography, history, etc. 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTKATION. 465 

the United States made a treaty, purchased the right of way 
for $10,000,000, and in 1904 began work on the canal. The 
excavation was completed ten years later. 

A Ne^w Department and the Alaska Boundary. — Two 
important governmental events took place in 1903. One 
of these was the addition of a new department to the 
Executive branch of the Government. This was entitled 
the Department of Commerce and Labor, and was given 
charge of the commercial and industrial interests of the 
United States. The other was a settlement of the long- 
disputed Alaskan boundary. This was adjusted by arbitra- 
tion, the new line following the mountain crests ten leagues 
back from the ocean, instead of crossing the heads of the 
inlets, as the Canadians contended for. 

The St. Louis and Later Expositions. — A great World's 
Fair was held at St. Louis in 1904, in commemoration of 
the purchase from France of the Louisiana territory in 1803. 
This, officially named the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 
was the most extensive in size of buildings and grounds of 
any held to that date, and was highly effective in grouping 
and architecture of the buildings and decoration of the 
grounds. The exhibits were varied and artistic and the 
display attracted large numbers of visitors. In the follow- 
ing year an attractive Exposition was held at Portland, Ore- 
gon, in honor of the celebrated Lewis and Clark expedition, 
in 1907 the three hundredth anniversary of the settlement 
of Virginia was commemorated by an Exposition near Nor- 
folk, and in 1909 the development of the Pacific region by 
one at Seattle, Washington. 

The Presidential Election of 1904. — In 1904 the Repub- 
lican party nominated Theodore Roosevelt and Charles W. 
Fairbanks as its candidates for President and Vice-President, 
and the Democratic party nominated Alton B. Parker and 



466 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

Henry G. Davis. The Republican candidates were elected 
by a very large majority, receiving- three hundred and 
thirty-six electoral votes against one hundred and forty 
for Parker and Davis. 

The Portsmouth Peace Conference. — In 1905 a meet- 
ing of great importance was held at Portsmouth, N. H. 
This Avas a Peace Conference suggested by President Roose- 
velt and accepted by the governments of Russia and Japan 
as a means of bringing to an end the sanguinary war be- 
tween those countries. The plenipotentiaries of Russia 
and Japan met on August 10 and succeeded in conqlud- 
ing a treaty which was signed on September 5, 1905. 
Roosevelt's agency in this gave him great credit abroad, 
and in 1906 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, given 
annually to the one wlio had done the most in furthering 
the interests of peace. 

The San Francisco Earthquake. — On the 18th of April, 
1906, the most destructive earthquake In the history of our 
country took place in California, the populous city of San 
Francisco being in the centre of its violence. A large num- 
ber of business houses and dwellings were ruined by the 
shock, hundreds of people being killed and very many in- 
jured. Fire followed the earthquake, sweeping through the 
business and much of the richer residence sections of the 
city and causing an unprecedented loss, estimated at more 
than $300,000,000. Starvation threatened the inhabitants, 
and millions of dollars were contributed for their relief by 
the charitable throughout the country. Many smaller towns 
were ruined and the devastation was widespread. But with 
true American spirit the people of San Francisco took im- 
mediate steps to rebuild their city, and are making it greater 
and more beautiful tlian before. 

The State of Oklahoma. — Shortly after the advent of the 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION. 467 

twentieth century, efforts were made to convert into States 
the Indian, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona Territories, 
and in 1906 Congress passed a bill for the formation of two 
States from these four Territories, one to consist of Okla- 
homa and Indian Territory, the other of New Mexico and 
Arizona, in case the inhabitants voted in favor of the meas- 
ure. It was accepted in the first two Territories but defeated 
in the others, Arizona voting largely against it. A con- 
vention held in Oklahoma formed a constitution for the 
proposed State, the proclamation by the President of the 
formation of a satisfactory constitution being the final step 
necessary to its admission. The new State, known as Okla- 
homa, embraced the area of the Indian Territory before its 
division and constituted the forty-sixth State of the Union. 

Reform Movements and Legislation. — In 1905 began 
a widespread movement for political and business reform, 
which continued during the following years. Several of 
the great life-insurance companies were rigidly investigated 
and found to be nests of fraud and corruption, and steps 
were taken to insure honesty in these and other corporations. 
At the instigation of President Roosevelt bills were passed 
by Congress to regulate freight charges on the railroads, to 
prevent unclean methods of meat-packing, the adulteration 
of food-stuffs, etc. The unfair and dishonest practices of 
the great trust companies were also rigidly investigated, and 
in 1907 a Federal Court fined the Standard Oil Company 
the immense sum of $29,240,000 for accepthig illegal 
rebates in railroad freights. This decision was afterwards 
reversed by a United States Circuit Court of Appeals. 

The American Fleet Circumnavigates the "World. — 
The most remarkable naval enterprise ever undertaken by 
any nation was the circumnavigation of the globe in 1908 
by a great American fleet, consisting of sixteen battleships 



468 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

and other vessels. Setting sail from the Atlantic coast 
December 16, 1907, this powerful fleet passed down the 
Atlantic and up the Pacific seaboard of South America, 
reaching San Francisco in March, 1908. It sailed thence 
across the Pacific, visiting in its long voyage New^ Zealand, 
Australia, Japan, and China, and being everywhere received 
with enthusiastic demonstrations of honor and respect. 
In its return voyage it passed through the Isthmus of Suez 
in January, 1909, and reached Hampton Roads, Va., wiience 
it had sailed, on February 22, 1909. Such a voyage of a 
national navy, made wdthout delay or accident, is without 
l)recedent in the history of the world, and added greatly 
to the prestige of the United States as a naval power. 

Presidential Election of 1908. — In the nominating con- 
ventions of 1908, the Republican Convention nominated 
for President William H. Taft, of 
Ohio, late Secretary of War, and for 
Vice President, James S. Sherman, 
of New York, and the Dem:)cratic 
Convention nominated for President 
William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and 
for Vice President, John W. Kern, 
of Indiana. This was Mr. Bryan's 
third nomination for this office, the 
others being in 189G and 1900. He 
cupyri,.!,. by ciine,iin,t. ^^.^g ^^^^j,^ defeated, rcccivlng 1G2 

Electoral votes, while the Republican 
candidates were elected by a vote of 321. President Roose- 
velt had declined to be a candidate for another term, and, 
immediately after the close of his term of office, set out on 
a hunting expedition to Africa, to obtain specimens of ani- 
mals for tlie Smithsonian Institute, from which he returned 
to Europe in March, 1910. 




TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION. 469 

10. ZatVs HC>ministration» 

Revision of the Tariff. — In the platform of the Conven- 
tion that nommated William H. Taft' for the Presidency 
certain promises of legislatioji were made which he deemed 
it his duty to carry out. One of these was that the tariff 
would be revised and the rates made lower^ For this pur- 
pose the President called an extra session of Congress in 
March, 1909, which passed a new tariff bill on September 5. 
This lowered the rates on many articles, but not enough 
to give general satisfaction. Congress also adopted an 
amendment to the Constitution which, when passed by the 
legislatures of three-fourths of the States, would give the 
Government the right to lay an income tax on the people. 

Discovery of the North Pole. — In September, 1909, the 
interesting news came that two Americans had reached 
the North Pole, a goal that had been sought for centuries. 
The first claim came from Dr. Frederick A. Cook, of 
Brooklyn, on September 1, and the second from Com- 
mander Robert E. Peary, United States Navy, on Sep- 
tember 6. These claims were investigated and it was 
decided that Dr. Cook's claim was false and that the honor 
of discovering the Pole belonged only to Commander 
Peary. He received honors and praises from all countries 
for his great feat. 

'William Howard Taft was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, September 15, 
1857. He graduated at Yale University, studied law in the Cincinnati 
Law School, and practised law until 1887 when he was made Judge 
of the Superior Court of Ohio. He became Solicitor General of the 
United States in 1890, United States Circuit Judge in 1892, President 
of the Philippine Commission in 1900, and Governor of the Philippine 
Islands in 1901. In 1904 he declined an appointment as Justice of 
the United States Supreme Court and was made Secretary of War in 
the Roosevelt Cabinet. This post he held until his election to the 
Presidency. 



470 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

Conservation of Natural Resources. ^ — A movcnieiil for 
the preservation of the Ibn^'sls, mining-, and other natnral 
wealth of tlie United Slates, begnn dnrinj^- llie Roosevelt 
Administration, was continned under that of President 
Taft. For years the forests held by private parties had 
been rapidly disappearing through wasteful processes, the 
coal deposits were fast vanishing, and the fact that water- 
power could be converted into electric force and replace 
coal for manufacturing and other purposes had made cap- 
italists eager to obtain possession of these sources of power 
in the national domain. To prevent all this an immense 
area of government forest land was withdrawn from settle- 
ment, and the same was done with the water-power sites 
and the coal and petroleum deposits in the public land 
area, this including the large coal beds recently discovered 
in Alaska. A forest service was also established for the 
prevention of forest fires, which had been very destructive. 
The purpose of these withdrawals was to retain and employ 
the sources of natural wealth still held by the government 
for the benefit of tlie whole people. 

An Active Controversy. — The governmental action 
above stated was not relished by the wealth hunters. Cap- 
italists had laid plans to gain control of the coal beds of 
Alaska and of the water-power sites. They were favored in 
this by Richard A. Ballinger, Secretary of the Interior in 
the Taft cabinet, who opened the water-powersites to entry 
under the homestead laws and supported tlu? Alaska coal 
claimants. He was vigorously opposed by Gifford Pinchot, 
Ctiief Forester of the United States, and a hot controversy 
arose. The President supported Ballinger and dismissed 
Pinchot from his office, but public opinion against the 
claim hunters grew so strong that in the end Secretary 



TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION. 471 

Ballinger resigned. Eventually the cause of the people 
triumphed, and what remain under government control of 
these great sources of wealth are now regarded as the prop- 
erty of the nation, to be kept and operated for the benefit of 
the general public. 

The Trusts in Court. — Different methods had prevailed 
in former time^, with the result that vast deposits of min- 
eral wealth, capable of enriching the whole community, had 
been absorbed by rich capitalists. Prominent among these 
was the Standard Oil Company, which had gained control 
of great part of the immense deposits of petroleum in Penn- 
sylvania and elsewhere, and was looked upon as a danger- 
ous and illegal monopoly. Suit was brought against it 
before the United States Supreme Court, and in May, 1911, 
it was declared an illegal corporation and ordered to dis- 
solve. Similar decisions were rendered against the Ameri- 
can Tobacco and some other trusts or corporations, and 
suits have been brought against the United States Steel 
Company and a number of similar monopolies. - 

Ne-w Leg-islation. — Among the important measures 
passed during the administration of President Taft was a 
law for taxing corporations, passed in 1909. This has 
yielded large sums to the government. A bill was also 
passed establishing a Postal Savings Bank, Avhich has 
proved very useful, and one founding a Parcels Post, which 
went into operation January 1, 1913, and is being very 
largely used. 

A resolution was adopted in 1911 for I he admission of 
the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico as States of the 
Union, and the Pre^dent proclaimed their admission early 
in 1912. These made the total number of States forty- 
eight. Another important measure passed by Congress 



472 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

was one to establish a system of lower duties with Canada, 
including free trade in several products, if Canada would 
make similar reductions in their rates of duties. This reci- 
procity bill, as it was called, failed, Canada declining to 
accept it. 

Amendments to the Constitution. — In 1909 a resolu- 
tion was })assed for the adoption of an amendment to the 
Constitution giving Congress the power to tax incomes. 
This was transmitted to the States for action, its accept- 
ance by three-fourths of the States being necessary. The 
requisite number was gained by the votes in its favor of 
Delaware, Wyoming, and New Mexico on February 3, 1913, 
these making thirty-eight States that had ratified it. The 
text of this, known as the XVI. Amendment, is given in its 
proper place under the Constitution, Another amendment, 
providing for the direct election of United States Senators 
by the people, was adopted by Congress early in 1912 and 
submitted to the Stales. Ratification of this proceeded 
more rapidly, it being finally adopted by the approval of 
Connecticut, April 8, 1013. It ranks as the XVII. Amend- 
ment. 

Achievements of the Engineers. — A number of impor- 
tant engineering feats took place during the term of Presi- 
dent Taft, one of much interest being a great railroad tun- 
nel and subway under Manhattan Island and the Hudson 
and East Rivers at New York City. This, built by the 
Pennsylvania Railroad Company, was completed in 1909, 
a locomotive passing through it under rivers and city, from 
New Jersey to Long Island, on November 18. Several 
smaller tunnels, for street-railway travel, had previously 
been completed. Otlier marvels of engineering consist in 
the Gunnison tunnel of Colorado, cut six miles through 



TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION. 473 

the heart of a mountain, and the Strawberry tunnel of 
Utah, cut several miles through the Wasatch mountains. 
These, constructed under great difficulties, are for irriga- 
tion purposes. The Panama Canal also made important 
progress, and the promise was made that vessels would be sent 
through it before the end of the administration. While this 
was not accomplished, the canal was completed a year later. 

The Election of 1912. — The Administration of Presi- 
dent Tall had given rise to much dissatisfaction among the 
advocates of low tarilT and other desired measures. This 
was indicated in 1910 by the election of many new Demo- 
cratic members to Congress. Also, there had developed a 
strong opposition in the ranks of the Republican members 
of the Senate, these opponents becoming known as " Insur- 
gents." The sentiment of insurgency had grown so strong 
by 1912 that, though President Taft was again nominated 
by the Republican Convention, there was vigorous opposi- 
tion, many of the delegates withdrawing and organizing a 
new party, which they called the Progressive party. This 
selected for its candidate Ex-President Roosevelt, who had 
been a leader in the movement. In the Democratic Con- 
vention the choice fell upon Woodrow Wilson, Governor 
of New Jersey. 

The division of the Republican party into two sections 
gave the Democrats an excellent opportunity, and Wilson 
was elected by a large electoral majority, receiving 435 
votes, while Roosevelt received 88, and Taft the small 
number of 8. The popular vote showed much less dis- 
crepancy, Wilson receiving 6,303,063, Roosevelt 4,168,564, 
and Taft 3,439,529 votes. Thomas R. Marshall, Governor 
of Indiana, was elected Vice-President. The Socialist 
party showed much strength, receiving 898,119 votes. 



474 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

U. Mtlson's H^miuistrattou. 

The Wilson Inauguration. — The inauguration of Wood- 
row Wilson/ as President of the United States, which took 
[)]ace on Munh 4, 1913, was marked by an address full of 
hopeful promise and elevated sentiment. It was followed 
by an announcement of his cabinet offi- 
cials, the chief among them, the Secre- 
tary of State, being William Jennings 
Bryan, wlio had on three previous oc- 
casions been the Democratic candidate 
for President. A new cabinet official 
was that of Secretary of Labor, the 
former combined department of Com- 
merce and Labor being now divided 
wooDRow WIL80N. Jj^^q ^^^,q scparatc departments. 

A Tariff Session. — The recent election had given a lai^e 
Democratic majority in the House and a small one in the 
Senate, and Congress was at once called mto extra session 
to consider a general revision of the tariff, based on the 
principle of a tariff for revenue only, in opposition to the 
Republican idea of a tariff for protection of industries. 
This legislation led to the passage of a tariff with much 




^Woodrow Wilson was born at Staunton, Va., December 28, 1856. 
He graduated at Princeton College in 1878, adopted the profession of 
teaching, and became a professor at Bryn Mawr in 1885, at Wesleyan 
in 1888, and at Princeton in 1890, being made president of the latter 
in 1892. In 1910 he was elected governor of New Jersey, in whieh 
office his political acumen and spirit of reform made him so notable 
that he was chosen as the Democratic candidate for President in 1912 
and was elected to the piesidency in November of that year. PTe is 
the author of "A History of tiie American People" and other liis- 
torical and literary works. 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 475 

decreased rates, many articles being put on the free list. 
Its effect was a large increase in importations, which the 
Republican party maintained would be injurious to Ameri- 
can manufacturing industries. 

Financial Leg-islation. — To supply new revenue, a tax 
was laid on incomes, the rate being fixed at one per cent. 
on incomes of $3,000 a year in the case of unmarried and 
$4,000 a year in that of married persons. Two per cent, 
was charged on incomes over $20,000, and the rate was 
gradually increased until it became seven per cent, on all 
incomes over $500,000. Other important financial legisla- 
tion had to do with the subject of banking. The National 
Banking System lacked control and unity and failed to 
guard the country against financial disasters. To overcome 
this weakness a new law was passed providing for a cen- 
tralized system of banking. This embraced twelve Fed- 
eral Reserve Banks, through which the National Banks of 
the various regions could transact their chief financial 
operations. Above these was placed a Federal Reserve 
Board appointed by the government, and bringing the 
whole financial system of the country under direct govern- 
ment control. This system began operations on November 
16, 1914. Its effect was to concentrate and unify the 
banking operations of the country, the central banks serv- 
ing as a great balance wheel to prevent dangerous disturb- 
ances in the money market. 

Alaska and Panama. — The territorial district of Alaska 
had grown considerably in population and importance, and 
in August, 1914, it was raised to the full rank of a Terri- 
tory of the American Union, being given a governor and 
legislature and supplied with a new capital, the city of 
Juneau. The discovery of lai^e deposits of coal and cop- 



476 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

per added to its mining resources and tlie government 
began the building of a system of railroads for the develop- 
ment of its mining and agricultural industries. 

Another event of importance was the completion in 1914 
of the Panama Canal, after ten years of active construction, 
at a cost of about $375,000,000. The full use of the canal 
was delayed by slides of earth and rock, demanding fur- 
ther excavation, but it was hoped to bring this trouble to 
an end in a year or two. In honor of this threat work a 
World's Fair was held at San Francisco in 1915 and a 
minor exposition at San Diego, California. These were 
highly attractive and drew a large number of visitors to the 
Pacific coast. 

New Methods in Government. — During the period 
with which we are now concerned various measures wi>re 
adopted to give the people a better control over legislation. 
The systems known as the Initiative and Referendum, first 
applied in Switzerland, and intended to give the people a 
direct voice in legislation, were adopted in a number of 
the American States. The Initiative gave the people the 
right to suggest laws for the action of the legislature. The 
Referendum gave them the right, when it seemed desirable, 
to accept or reject laws passed in the legislature. Another 
system, known as the Recall, was also introduced, under 
which office holders of whose acts the people disapprov(>d 
could be dismissed from their positions. 

Still another system, that of Commission Government, 
first tried in Galveston, Texas, in 1901, has now been 
adopted by more than 400 cities, including New Orleans, 
Denver and others of importance. In this the mayor and 
councils of cities are replaced by a body of business men, 
five or a ftnv more in number, who manage all municipal 



WILSON'S ADMINISTKATION. 477 

affairs. It greatly simplifies the work of city government. 
Other reform measures have been introduced. These in- 
clude Prohibition of Liquor Selling, gradually adopted in a 
number of States, and made an Amendme-nt to the United 
States Constitution in January, 1920. Women Suffrage was 
also adopted in a considerable number of States and in 1919 
was voted on favorably as a Constitutional Amendment. 

Peace Treaties. — In 1913 President Wilson made a pro- 
posal for the preservation of peace between the nations. 
This proposal, warmly advocated by Secretary Bryan, 
provided for an International Commission to investigate 
and report upon all disputes between nations, with the 
view of arresting hostilities. An important feature in the 
plan was that a full year should be given the Commission 
to act in the interests of peace before war should be de- 
clared. Thirty nations had accepted this proposition by 
the end of 1914. Germany and Austria, in which the war 
of 1914 began, had not acted on the proposition. 

Revolution in Mexico. — The revolution in Mexico, which 
led to the defeat and exile of President Diaz in 1911 and 
the assassination of President Madero and the usurpation 
of Huerta in 1913, brought the United States actively into 
the affair. President Wilson refused to recognize Huerta 
as the legal head of the Mexican republic, and an event at 
Tampico in 1914, which was regarded by the President 
as an insult to the American flag, led to the occupation of 
Vera Cruz by American troops. Also the revolt against 
Huerta by Governor Carranza and General Villa was aided 
by Wilson through the opening of free trade in war ma- 
terials on the American border. This attitude of the United 
States government, together with the success of the insur- 
gents, led to the resignation of Huerta on July 15, 1914, 



478 DEVELOPMEXT OF THE NEW NATION. 

and on November 23 the troops were withdrawn from Vera 
Cruz, ill view of the new status of Mexican affairs, Carranza 
having taken control of the government under the title of 
''First Chief." A new complication arose in March, 1916, 
when Villa, then in revolt against Carranza, crossed into 
New Mexico at the head of a party of brigands, attacked 
the town of Columbus, and killed seventeen American 
soldiers and citizens. He was pursued into Mexico by a 
large body of troops and for several months a strenuous 
elfort to capture him was made. This proved unsuccess- 
ful. Villa was not to be found, and after nearly a year of 
occupation of Mexican soil the troops were withdrawn and 
a force of National Guards which had been guarding the 
border was called home. 

New Legislation. — An important feature of the General 
Revenue Bill, enacted by Congress in 1916, w^as a measure 
providing for a Tariff Commission, a step which had long 
been demanded. Its purpose was to take the tariff ques- 
tion out of the hands of legislators and deal with it on a 
purely business basis, putting it into the hands of experts 
in trade and manufacture. These were to suggest and 
consider desirable changes in the rates to be paid on the 
various articles of import. The tariff issue had long been 
a leading one in party politics. It was hoped in this way 
to make it a purely business question. The Commission 
was to consist of six persons, chosen by the President, but 
not more than three to belong to any one political party. A 
Federal Trade Commission was also provided for, this to be 
composed of five members appointed by the President. The 
purpose of this body was to study trade conditions and pre- 
vent unfair or illegal methods in business operations, also 
to investigate commercial relations with foreign countries. 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 479 

Another bill passed had to do with the Immigration 
question, which had long been a source of wide difference 
of opinion. For many years efforts had been made, espe- 
cially by the artisan class, to restrict immigration, one 
important means of doing this being to confine it to those 
able to read and write. Bills for this purpose had been 
passed at various times, but all of them had been vetoed 
by the Presidents on the plea that this would be unjust to 
many otherwise capable and desirable persons. Such a 
bill w^as passed in the congressional session of 1916-17, 
but this also was vetoed. But on this occasion it was 
passed over the President's veto and became law. It re- 
quired that all immigrants over sixteen years of age, with 
certain exceptions, must be able to read in English or some 
other language. This, known as the "Literacy Test," is 
looked on by many as a useful and desirable means of re- 
ducing the number of undesirable immigrants and of aliens 
in general, the multitude of whom has become very great. 
In several years after 1900 they had exceeded more than 
one million annually in numbers. 

Eight Hour Railroad Law. — An important event in 
the labor world was the threatened strike, in August, 1916, 
of railroad operatives, who demanded an eight-hour day 
without reduction of wages. It came at a critical time, in 
which a cessation of railroad activity was likely to prove 
very serious to the country, and extraordinary steps were 
taken to prevent disaster. President Wilson held confer- 
ences with the railroad officials and the leaders in the 
strike movement agreed with the latter in their main de- 
mand, and called upon Congress for legislation to deal with 
the critical conditions. As a result a bill was introduced 
into Congress to the effect that eight hours should be re- 



480 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

garded as a full day for men engaged in the movement of 
railroad trains, and that they should receive extra pay for 
any labor beyond this time. This was to go into effect on 
January 1, 1917. As a result the strike order was called 
off and the feared disaster averted. The case was the 
only one on record hi which the administration has been 
coerced into hasty action through the demands of strikers. 

The War in Europe. — A great war which began in 
Europe in August, 1914, and in which most of the nations 
of that continent became involved, had important effects 
upon the United States. The first of these was to interfere 
with commerce and to cause a considerable increase in the 
price of food and other necessities. Also the invasion of 
Belgium by a German army and the consequent destitution 
of its people enlisted warm sympathy in the United States, 
considerable quantities of food and clothing being sent for 
the relief of those helpless people. A large commerce in 
food stuffs and war material also arose, tliis being confined 
to Britain, France and Paissia, the blockade of German 
ports by the British fleet preventing the sending of supplies 
to Germany and Austria. 

This caused much resentment in those countries, whose 
people held that the United States was taking sides with 
their enemies. A like feeling was aroused in this country 
in consequence of fires and explosions in w^orkshops and on 
merchant vessels, many believing these to be the work of 
German agents. This sentiment of hostility grew more 
acute as time went on and fear arose tliat the United 
States would eventually l)e drawn into the war. 

The Submarines. — The war in Europe was not confined 
to operations on land, for there w-as fighting between flying 
machines in the air and war vessels on the ocean. The 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 481 

latter was mainly confined to the work of submarines, or 
vessels capable of sinking and being navigated under the 
water and of rising again to attack merchant ships with 
torpedoes and cannon. Many British vessels were sunk 
in this way, and among the lives lost in consequence were 
those of a number of Americans. The worst disaster of 
this kind took place in May, 1915, when a great ocean pas- 
senger vessel, the Lusitania, was struck by a torpedo and 
sent to the bottom. Among the many lives lost were those 
of more than one hundred Americans. 

This attack led to intense indignation in the United 
States and the war sentiment grew warm in many quarters. 
But only diplomatic correspondence followed. In the end 
Germany agreed to conduct its submarine warfare in such 
a way as not to endanger the lives of Americans and also 
to recompense the families of those who had been drowned. 

The Election of 1916. — In the summer of 1916 nomi- 
nating conventions Avere held by the political parties for the 
selection of candidates for President and Vice-President of 
the United States. Of the chief parties, the Democratic re- 
nominated Woodrow Wilson and Thomas R. Marshall. 
The Progressive party made no nominations but strongly 
endorsed Theodore Roosevelt as a suitable candidate for 
the Republican party. This party, however, chose Charles 
E, Hughes, a justice of the Supreme Court, and Charles W. 
Fairbanks, who had been Vice-President under Roosevelt. 
The contest resulted in the election of the Democratic can- 
didates, who received 277 electoral votes, the Republican 
candidates receiving 254. 

War -with Germany. — The critical relations existing 
between Germany and the United States reached a crisis in 
the early part of 1917, in consequence of the German gov- 



482 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

ernment breaking its agreement with this country and 
adopting a new system of submarine warfare of ruthless 
character. A zone of submarine activity was established 
within which all vessels, hostile or neutral, were to be sub- 
ject to attack. Ocean lanes were set aside for American 
vessels, and these were required to be painted in a peculiar 
way. In this way the North Atlantic was to be closed 
against America's free use of the open sea. 

As a result an era of " frightfulness " followed, vessels 
being sunk in large numbers and more Americans losing 
their lives. Hot indignation followed. It was felt that 
Germany was waging war upon the United States, and this 
country at once broke off diplomatic relations with the 
German government, sending home its ambassador and re- 
calling the American ambassador from Berlin. As the 
submarine menace grew more threatening President Wil- 
son, feeling that urgent action was necessary, called Con- 
gress into extra session, and on April 6 the final decisive 
step was taken. Congress declaring that a state of war 
existed between Germany and the United States. The 
great republic of the West thus entered into the mighty 
struggle which had long involved nearly all of the great 
Powers of the world. 

Financial Measures. — To obtain the very largo sum of 
money needed for the exi)ense of equipping and training 
the army to be raised, to build the large fleet of vessels con- 
tracted for, and to produce munitions of war in the vast 
quantity required, it became necessary to add largely to the 
funds already voted for by Congress. Loans for large sums 
were offered to the people at rates of interest from 3i to 
over 4 per cent and were taken with avidity. The money 
thus subscribed for during the war amounted to the vast 



WILSON'S ADMINISTKATION. 483 

total of over $18,500,000,000, while in the spring of 1919, 
after the war's end, another loan, called the "Victory Loan," 
for $4,500,000,000, was opened to public subscription and 
readily taken. ' Of the money thus obtained more than 
$8,000,000,000 was re-loaned to the European allies of 
the United States to enable them to purchase food supplies 
and meet other obligations to this country. 

The immense debt thus incurred called for liquidation 
on an extraordinary scale, alike to pay interest charges and 
provide for the payment of the principal. For this purpose 
a heavy tax was laid on the incomes of the people, one 
increasing rapidly in percentage as incomes grew larger. 
High rates of taxation were also imposed on the commercial 
and industrial interests of the country, almost every article 
used by the people being taxed to the highest limit that 
could be borne without causing distress. In this way pro- 
vision was made for as rapid a reduction of the debt as 
was available. 

The United States in the War. — The first step that 
marked the direct entry of the United States into the World 
War was the sending across the Atlantic of a large flotilla 
of destroyers, torpedo boats and other small war craft, to 
aid the British patrol force then dealing with the German 
submarines. A division of the American army was also 
sent to France, to be followed by a nmch larger force as 
soon as the young conscripts called into the ranks could be 
trained for military duty. Before the conflict ended, more 
than 2,000,000 of these American soldiers had been drafted 
and sent to the fighting line in France while considerably 
more than another million were kept under training in 
home camps. This large army eventually brought victory 
to the Allies, the Germans being driven back toward the 



484 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 

Rhine, and on November 11, 1918, forced to surrender 
unconditionally to the invading hosts. Their heroic 
advance led to one of the greatest victories in the history of 
the war and the overthrow of one of the strongest nations 
of modern times. 

Events After the War. — The contlict thus ended, victory 
being achieved by Americans in Europe, steps were taken 
to bring back home the large army of American soldiers, 
and this was done with such unexampled rapidity that in the 
spring of 1 9 1 9 as many as 300,000 of the victors were brought 
home in seven months. Meanwhile, a council of delegates 
from the allied nations, headed by President Wilson on the 
part of the United States and the premiers of Britain, France 
and Italy, was held at Versailles, near Paris, for the pur- 
pose of formulating a treaty of peace, one imposing very 
severe penalties ui)on Germany for the havoc and destruc- 
tion done by its ruthless armies in Belgium and France, 
also to repay the costs of the war to the victors. 

To this was added a covenant for a "League of Nations 
to Enforce Peace," it being hoped that by the power of 
such a national alliance future wars might be avoided and 
the world rest in prosperity under the banners of peace. 
Among those most prominent in this work was Woodrow 
Wilson, the American President, who had laid down the 
basis of the peace proposals and spent several months in 
France in a vigorous effort to have them carried through. 

Rigorous terms of peace were finally adopted in June, 
1919, and were ratified in July of that year by the republic 
that had replaced the former Empire of Germany. The 
ratification of the treaty, including the League of Nations, 
by tlie United States and the other powers concerned alone 
remained to be completed. 



PART XL 
STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 



I. GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES. 

Purposes of Spanish and French Colonists. — It was per- 
haps a fortunate result of the conditions of nature that the 
region of the United States did not prove attractive to the 
early settlers of either France or Spain. A century after 
the discovery of America there w^ere only two Spanish set- 
tlements in this region, St. Augustine and Santa Fe. There 
were no French settlements. 

This fact is not difficult to understand. It was the search 
for gold to which the Spanish activity in colonization was 
due. Agriculture was long a minor consideration. But 
the explorations of De Soto and Coronado had failed to find 
gold or other precious products in the north. Hence the 
Spanish settlers neglected this section of America. 

The French, like the Spanish, were not strongly inclined 
to agriculture. After their failure to found a colony in 
Florida they confined their settlements to the region of the 
St. Lawrence, attracted by the fur-trade and the fisheries, 
which promised to be more lucrative than the cultivation 
of the ground. 

Region of British Occupation. — For the reasons here 
given the Atlantic coast between Florida and Acadia re- 
mained unoccupied until the beginning of the seventeenth 

485 



486 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

century, when the Enp:lish awakened to the advantage of 
colonization. The English colonies differed essentially in 
character from those of Spain and France. Those of Spain 
began as royal colonies, and remained so. Those of France, 
though formed by proprietors, quickly became royal col- 
onies. In none of these was there any civil or religious 
liberty. The colonists were subjects of autocratic govern- 
ments at home, and looked for nothing better abroad. 

Political Conditions of the English Colonies. — The 
colonies of England were formed by the people, not by the 
crown. Though most of them eventually became royal 
colonies, they had a long period of self-government, during 
which they were left almost without interference from the 
mother-country. The colonists also differed greatly from 
those of France and Spain in degree of political education. 
They had exercised the right of suffrage and possessed 
representative government at home, and lost no time in 
establishing a similar form of government in America. 
There were exceptions to this. In some colonies an effort 
was made to establisli a paternal or autocratic government. 
But this quickly failed and representative government be- 
came general. 

Paternal Government. — Paternalism, similar to that pre- 
vailing in Canada and Spanish America, was attempted in 
Virginia, New York, Carolina, and Georgia. That in Vir- 
ginia soon ended. In Carolina and Georgia the vigorous 
opposition of the people to paternalism in time brought it 
to an end. In New Amsterdam, paternalism prevailed 
throughout, and continued in the English colony of New 
York until 1683, when the Duke of York, at the sugges- 
tion of William Penn, ordered the election of a representa- 
tive assembly. In all these cases representative succeeded 
paternal government. 



GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES. 4X7 

Eepresentative Government. — In Pennsylvania, Mary- 
land, and New Jersey representative government Avas at 
once established by the proprietors, and in the New Eng- 
land colonies by the people themselves. Its development, 
and the growing liberty of the people, were greatly aided 
by the revolutionary movements in England, where two 
kings had been driven from the throne for tyranny. This 
struggle for free institutions in the mother-country was 
reflected in the colonies, where the spirit of liberty grew 
steadily stronger. And the ruling powers in England were 
for many years so occupied at home that they interfered 
but little with what was taking place abroad. 

The Plymouth Compact. — One colony came to America 
without charter or proprietor, and without lord or master. 
This was the Plymouth colony, which was left free to 
devise what form of government it pleased. In accordance 
with English example, a self-governed democracy was es- 
tablished. A compact was drawn up and signed in the 
cabin of the Mayflower in which the Pilgrims declared 
their purpose of making laws for the " general good of the 
colony." A governor was chosen from among themselves, 
and in this way New England began its existence as a free 
commonwealth, in whose government England had no 
part. 

The government established was of the most primitive 
form. It was not a representative government, but one 
composed of the whole people, every freeman taking part 
directly in the making of the laws. It was their custom to 
meet in an assembly of the community, and enact laws, 
which were enforced by the governor and his council. 
This was an interesting instance of government of the 
people by the people. It still exists in New England and 
some other parts of the United States as the " town meet- 



488 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

ing," in which the people of small localities meet to make 
laws for their local government. 

The Massachusetts and Maryland Systems. — The 
colony of Massachusetts Bay began its existence with the 
same simple form of government as that of Plymouth. It 
was, however, not free to all, since only members of the 
Puritan Church could take part in legislation. No others 
could vote or act in the assembly. 

Maryland, when first settled, was given a similar simple 
form of government by Lord Baltimore. It was broader in 
its idea of liberty than that of Massachusetts, since it made 
no sectarian restriction. All Christians were given a voice 
in the law-making body. 

A Representative Assembly Chosen. — This simple 
system soon proved inapplicable except for local affairs. 
By 1634 there were many settlements, miles apart, around 
Massachusetts Bay. It became next to impossible for the 
whole people to meet and make laws. In that year, there- 
fore, deputies or representatives were elected to act for the 
people in a " General Court" ^ or legislature, which at first 
served both as a court of law and a legislative body. In 
this way personal government was widened into repre- 
sentative government. The legislature in Massachusetts 
and New Hampshire is still called the General Court. 

The Two-House Legislative System. — Massachusetts 
took a second step of progress in 1644. Until then the 
legislature had formed one body. It was now divided into 
two, on the plan of the Houses of Lords and Commons in 
England. The governor and his councillors sat in one 

' A " General Court" was prescribed in the charter, and the first was 
held in Boston, October 19, 1630. This was an assembly of the whole 
people, not a representative body. The charter required all freemen 
to assemble four times a year. 



GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES. 489 

chamber, the representatives in another. The governor 
and council were elected annually by the whole body of 
freemen ; the representatives by the several settlements. 
Thus was first constituted the American legislature of two 
houses, now the prevailing form. 

This system of two legislative houses was adopted in 
time by all the colonies but Pennsylvania, though outside 
of New England the upper house was not elected by the 
people, but chosen by the governor or proprietor. It did 
not, therefore, represent the people. Pennsylvania pos- 
sessed a single legislative assembly elected by the people. 
An executive council to assist the governor was also elected, 
but it had no law-making functions. 

Connecticut and Rhode Island. — In the New Haven 
settlement, as in the Massachusetts, only church members 
could vote. The Connecticut settlement was more liberal 
and gave all citizens the right to vote. No official but the 
governor was required to be a church member. In Con- 
necticut, as in Massachusetts, the governor and legislature 
took oaths of allegiance to the commonwealth, not to the 
crown. Connecticut drew up a written constitution, in 
which no mention was made of the king. It was the first 
WRITTEN constitution ever framed by a body of citizens for 
their own government. 

Rhode Island went farther in the development of politi- 
cal liberty than any other American colony. There every 
citizen, whether Christian or pagan, had the right of suffrage 
and of official position. Every man who was the head of a 
family was a member of the General Court of the colony. 
Rhode Island was thus a pure democracy, there being no 
religious restriction to political privilege. As the colony 
widened a representative government like that of Massa- 
chusetts was adopted. 



490 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

United Colonies of New England. — New England, 
whose progress in political evolution surpassed that of the 
southern communities, took another important step forward 
in 1643. A confederacy, or federal government, was estab- 
lished. The colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, 
Connecticut, and New Haven joined into a federation en- 
titled The United Colonies of New England. Rhode Island 
was refused admission, its separate existence as a colony 
not being yet acknowledged. 

Two deputies were sent annually from each colony to 
form an assembly, whose purpose was to provide for de- 
fence against the Dutch and Indians and to settle disputes 
between the colonies. No permission was asked from the 
king to form this assembly, but no objection was made 
to it. 

It will be seen that New England had made a remarkable 
advance toward a federal republic of the same type as that 
of the United States of America. 

Royal Colonies. — Gradually the crown encroached upon 
the rights of companies and proprietors. Virginia was 
made a royal colony in a few years after its settlement. A 
similar result came later to New York, New Jersey, the 
Carolinas, and Georgia. Maryland was a crown colony 
from 1691 to 1715, when it was restored to its proprietor. 
Pennsylvania was the only colony which remained (except 
in 1692-93) under proprietary government throughout. 

In New England, New Hampshire was made a royal 
colony. The chartered colonies, Massachusetts, Connecti- 
cut, and Rhode Island, were under royal government for a 
few years during the reign of James II. During the remain- 
ing period of its colonial existence Massachusetts, though 
retaining its charter, was under a royal governor. He was, 
however, in a large measure a servant of the people, since 



GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES. 491 

his salary was annually voted by the legislature, and could 
be decreased if he acted in defiance of the popular will. 
Connecticut and Rhode Island, on the contrary, were per- 
mitted to retain their previous republican forms of govern- 
ment, and continued politically independent, electing their 
own governors and all other officials. Connecticut main- 
tained its charter government until 1818, and Rhode Island 
until 1842. These charters were so liberal in their pro- 
visions that they served for many years as constitutions of 
independent States. 

Religious Restrictions. — The degree of religious liberty 
enjoyed by the colonists differed considerably. Of them 
all, Virginia was the only one in which the principle of 
Church and State existed throughout. The Church of 
England was established on the formation of the colony, 
and its ministers and adherents continued very intolerant. 

Many of the other colonies were formed by immigrants 
who left their homes to escape from religious persecution. 
In this way New England was colonized by Separatists and 
Puritans, Pennsylvania and New Jersey by Quakers, Mary- 
land in part by Roman Cathohcs, and Carolina and Georgia 
largely by Huguenots and German Protestants. In New 
Amsterdam the Dutch Protestant Church was established. 
The Church of England was established in New York and 
New Jersey in 1693, but there was no religious persecution. 
It became supreme in Maryland after 1691, and was estab- 
lished in the Carolinas in 1706. 

Degrees of Tolerance. — Of the colonies, Massachusetts 
and Virginia were the most intolerant in religious matters, 
the Puritans in the one, the Episcopalians in the other, 
seeking to keep out all settlers of other sects. The same 
was the case for a time with the Dutch Protestants of 
New Amsterdam. These efforts failed, and some degree 

32 



492 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

of religious liberty was in lime admitted in all the col- 
onies. 

Religious tolerance was provided for in the charter of 
Maryland, the king perhaps fearing that Lord Baltimore, 
being a Roman Catholic, might oppress the Protestants. 
It was adopted in Pennsylvania, Carolina, and Georgia. 
Of all the colonies, however, Rhode Island was the most 
tolerant. In the other colonies freedom of worship was 
restricted to Christians ; there it was extended to all persons 
without distinction. 

2. LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. 

Franklin's Plan of Union. — A convention of delegates 
from the northern colonies, to devise measures of defence 
against the French, was held at Al- 
bany in 1754. Benjamin Franklin 
was one of the delegates, and pro- 
posed a plan for a union of the colo- 
nies, which was accepted by the con- 
vention, though it was not adopted 
by the country. The colonies, jeal- 
ous of their independence, thought 
that it took too much power from 
them to give to the general govern- 
^■^^Q^^^ rpj^g British authorities thought 
that it gave too much power to the colonies. Between 
these opposite jealousies the plan fell to the ground.' 

* Before leaving home to attend the convention, Franklin, to whom 
the necessity for union seemed great, made a warm appeal for it in his 
paper, the Pennsylvania Gazette, and headed it with a rude but sig- 
nificant wood-cut. This represented the colonies by a snake cut into 
thirteen pieces, each piece marked with the initial letter of the name 
ol a colony Under it was the motto " Unite or die." 




LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. 493 

What Franklin Proposed. — The following were the 
leading features of Franklin's plan. He suggested Philadel- 
phia, the most central large city, as the capital of the pro- 
posed confederacy. The government sitting here was to 
consist of a grand council, elected every third year by the 
colonies, but meeting once a year ; and a governor-general 
appointed by the king and with power of veto over all laws. 
This central government was to have the power to make 
general laws, to levy taxes, to regulate commerce, and to 
perform other governmental duties. The proposal was in 
advance of public opinion, and was rejected, but Franklin 
lived to see its essential features embodied in the Constitu- 
tion of the United States. 

The Stamp Act Congress. — The next step toward colo- 
nial union was taken in 1765, when the oppressive actions 
of the British government caused the colonies to elect del- 
egates to a congress to be held at New York, to consider 
the situation. Delegates came from nine of the colonies. 
This, which is known as the " Stamp Act Congress," issued 
an appeal to the king for American rights. 

The Continental Congresses. — A further step toward a 
congress was taken in the formation of " committees of cor- 
respondence" between the colonies. This was followed by 
the election of delegates to the " First Continental Congress," 
which met September 5, 1774, all the colonies but Georgia 
being represented. On May 10, 1775, a "Second Conti- 
nental Congress" met, with delegates from all the colonies. 
This issued a " Declaration of Colonial Rights," and in 1776 
a " Declaration of Independence." 

On June 11, 1776, a committee was appointed to prepare 
a form of confederation for the States, by which name the 
colonies now called themselves. A plan was formed and 
gradually ratified by the States, Maryland being the last to 



494 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

ratify it (January 30, 1781). The first Congress under the 
Confederation met March 2, 1781. The Second Continental 
Congress had continued in existence till that time. 

Weakness of the Confederation. — The Confederation 
was a weak and almost powerless body. The important 
power of taxation was retained by the States, which proved 
a fatal defect. Its Congress, which chose for the new gov- 
ernment the name of the " United States of America," was 
to meet annually, and to consist of not less than two or 
more than seven members from any State. There was no 
President, Congress retaining the executive power. 

The weakness of the new government soon became evi- 
dent. It could pass laws, but could not make the people 
obey them. It could incur debt, but could not lay a tax on 
the people with which to raise money to pay its debts. The 
States were to provide money for this purpose, but failed to 
do so. They were jealous of each other, and each acted as 
an independent nation, " We are," said Washington, " one 
nation to-day, and thirteen to-morrow." 

The Constitutional Convention. — This state of aflairs 
could not continue. The Confederation grew so weak that 
the States hardly troubled themselves to send delegates to its 
Congress, and it became difficult to get a quorum together. 
It grew apparent that there must be a strong central gov- 
ernment or none at all ; one strong nation or thirteen weak 
ones. The last alternative frightened the States. They 
were already pressed and threatened by foreign nations. 
Feeling that they could not stand alone, they consented to 
call a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation, 
and this convention met at Philadelphia in 1787. 

The 'Work of the Convention. — The convention con- 
tinued in secret session for four months. When it adjourned 
it was found to have thrown aside the Articles of Confedera- 



LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. 495 

tion and formed an entirely new Constitution. This " Con- 
stitution of the United States of America" is the form of 
government under which our country has risen to its present 
proud eminence among the nations of the earth. 

It gave Congress (composed of Representatives, elected 
by the people, and Senators, elected by the States) full 
power to make laws and lay taxes. 

It formed an executive branch of the government (con- 
sisting of the President and Vice-President) with full powei 
to enforce the laws, to make treaties (with the consent of 
the Senate), and to perform other duties. 

It added a judicial department (the Supreme Court), whose 
duty it was to decide what acts of Congress were in accord- 
ance with the Constitution. Any law, treaty, act, or pro- 
posal declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court be- 
comes illegal and cannot be enforced. 

Several amendments have been made to the Constitution, 
but in its leading feature? it remains intact. The several 
States have also adopted constitutions based largely upon 
that of the general government. 

Election of President. — It was considered by the Con- 
vention that Congress could not be trusted to elect the 
President, since he might be controlled by it in his action. 
And the people at large seemed too extensive a body to se- 
lect the best man for President. It was therefore decided 
that in each State a number of men of known judgment 
and abihty should be elected by the people, and that these, 
known as electors, should nominate and vote for candidates 
for the Presidential office.^ If none of those voted for by 

' In the first election under the Constitution it was decided that the 
electors should be chosen on the first Wednesday in January, they 
should meet to cast their votes on the first Wednesday in February, an<J 



49<; STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

the electors had a majority of the whole, the House of Rep- 
resentatives was to select the President from those voted for. 

Each elector voted for two candidates, the one receiving 
the highest number of votes to be President, the other Vice- 
President. This method ceased in 1804, after which they 
voted expressly for President and Vice-President. It was 
supposed that the electors would be independent in voting, 
but they soon became pledged to vote for certain candidates 
chosen by the parties in advance. Thus the purpose de- 
signed in the Constitution became defeated, and the elec- 
toral system grew useless. It is now looked upon as a 
piece of political machinery that could well be dispensed 
witli. 

The Convention System. — The first method in which 
the parties expressed their choice for Presidential candi- 
dates was by a caucus held by the members of Congress 
of the respective parties. In 1812 a convention of political 
leaders representing eleven States met in New York and 
nominated De Witt Clinton for President. In 1830 a nom- 
inating convention was called by the Anti-Mason party. 
This action was followed in 1831 by the National Republi- 
can, and in 1832 by the Democratic party. Since then all 
candidates for President and Vice-President have been nom- 
inated by national conventions of the party leaders. The 
first party platform, or declaration of principles, was made 
by the Democratic National Convention of 1840. Since 
then it has been customary for all nominating conventions 
to adopt a platform of principles. 

the President should take his seat on the first Wednesday in March. 
In 1789 this happened to be the 4th of March, and that date is still 
maintained for the beginning of each new administration and Congress, 
though the dates of election and of the meeting of electors have been 
changed. 



LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. 497 

The Emancipation Proclamation. — The most importani 
change in political conditions since the adoption of the Con- 
stitution was made by the Proclamation of Emancipation 
announced by President Lincoln September 22, 1862, and 
issued January 1, 1863. Under the action of this, and of 
the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution, slavery ceased. 
The fourteenth and fifteenth amendments made citizens of 
the recent slaves and gave them the full right of suffrage. 

Several new amendments to the Constitution have since 
been adopted. These include the sixteenth and seventeenth 
described on page 580, and the eighteenth, which prohibits 
the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors. The latter 
Avas passed in 1919 and became effective in January, 1920. 
A nineteenth amendment, granting full rights of suffrage to 
women, was passed in 1919 and submitted to the States. 

Departments and Cabinet Officers. — As it was impos- 
sible for the President to attend to all the executive duties 
of the government, a number of executive departments have 
been established by Congress. These consist of the de- 
partments of State, War, the Treasury, and Justice, formed 
in 1789 ; the Post-Office, temporarily in 1789, permanently 
in 1794; the Navy, in 1798; the Interior, in 1849; Agri- 
culture, in 1888; Commerce, in 1903; Labor, in 1913. 
They are under the Secretaries of State, War, the Treas- 
ury, the Navy, the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce and 
Labor, the Postmaster-General, and the Attorney-GeneraL 

No Cabinet, or body of advisers of the President, was 
contemplated by the Constitution, but President Washington 

' It is proper here to say that universal male suffrage was only grad- 
ually gained. In colonial times there was in every colony some prop- 
erty or other qualification attached to the suffrage. Even after the 
adoption of the Constitution these restrictions continued, and were only 
gradually removed by legislation in the States. 



498 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

frequently consulted the heads of departments on important 
subjects. Since then meetings of these officials have been 
called for joint consultation with the President. They thus 
became important members of the executive branch of the 
government, though with no power beyond that of advice. 
They have long been known, in this cajjacity, as the Cabi- 
net, the Postmaster General not being included until 1829. 
Presidential Succession. — An act was passed in 1886 
providing a series of successors to the Presidency in case 
of the death, resignation, inability, or removal of the Pres- 
ident and Vice-President. Under the present law the order 
of succession is, (1) the Secretary of State, (2) Secretary of 
the Treasury, (3) Secretary of War, (4) Attorney-General, 
(5) Postmaster-General, (6) Secretary of the Navy, and (7) 
Secretary of the Interior. The Secretaries of Agriculture 
and Commerce and Labor are omitted from this list, as 
these departments did not then exist. 

3. POLITICAL PARTIES. 

Diversity of Opinion. — As no two men in the world 
look just ahke, so no two think just alike. Political opin- 
ions everywhere vary, and political parties are everywhere 
formed. The first parties of this country were those of the 
Revolution, the Whigs and Tories, the former in favor of 
independence, the latter in favor of English rule. The 
Tories ceased to exist as a party after independence war 
gained. The Constitutional Convention of 1787 gave rise 
to the first political parties of the new republic, the Fed- 
eralists and Anti-Federalists. 

Federal Party. — This party was composed of those who 
favored a strong central government, and who therefore 
supported and voted for the adoption of the Constitution. 
It ceased to exist after the election of 1816. 



POLITICAL PARTIES. 499 

Anti-Federal Party. — This party was made up of those 
who opposed the Constitution, on the plea that it would 
give the central government a dangerous power. It disap- 
peared after the adoption of the Constitution. 

Democratic-Republican Party. — During Washington's 
first administration a new party arose, formed of the old 
Anti-Federalists and others opposed to the government. It 
was named the Republican party by its leader, Thomas Jef- 
ferson. During the French Revolution many " Democratic 
Clubs," formed of those who sympathized with the Revo- 
lutionists, were formed in this country. During 1794^95 
these Democrats united with the Republicans, and the party 
gradually became known as the Democratic-Republican. 
It maintained the doctrine of State rights and opposed a 
strong central government. 

Democratic Party. — The opposition of the Federal party 
to the war of 1812-15 destroyed its influence as a party, 
and for a period after its disappearance there was only one 
party in the country, the Democratic-Republican, which, 
after 1824, gradually became known as the Democratic. It 
favored State rights and opposed high duties on imported 
goods. It still exists as one of the great parties of the 
country.^ 

National Republican Party. — In 1828 a party under this 
name grew out of the Democratic party. It favored high 
tariff and public improvements by the government. 

Whig Party. — The National Republicans gradually as- 
sumed the name of Whigs, by which they were generally 
known after 1836. This party was strong during several 



' In 1827 an organization called the Anti-Mason party arose, on ac- 
count of a murder attributed to the Freemasons. It opposed that 
order as a dangerous secret party, whose civil duties were subordinated 
to its society obligations. This party disappeared after 1835. 



500 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

administrations, but vanished in the North after 1850. The 
name was retained in the South tih 1860. 

Liberty Party. — In 1839 a pohtical organization was 
formed calling itself the Liberty party, but generally known 
as the Anti-Slavery or Abolitionist party. It was com- 
posed of the opponents of slavery, and merged in 1848 into 
the Free-Soil party.^ 

Free-Soil Party. — This organization, formed in 1848 by 
seceding Whigs, was composed of those who opposed the 
extension of slavery into the Territories. It absorbed the 
Liberty party. 

American Party. — An organization called the Native 
American party was formed in New York in 1835. It op- 
posed the rapid naturalization and office-holding of for- 
eigners. It disappeared after 1845, and was succeeded in 
1852 by a similar organization, whose motto was '' Ameri- 
cans shall rule America." This, called the American party, 
was secret in its operations, and became known as the 
Know-Nothing party, as its members, when questioned, 
professed to know nothing about its secrets. It spread 
widely, but continued only a few years. 

Republican Party. — In 1854-55 an organization was 
formed known as " Anti-Nebraska Men," and opposed to 
the further extension of slavery. They soon adopted the 
name Republican, under which they were known in the 
election year of 1856. This party absorbed the remnants 

^ During a meeting at Tammany Hall, New York, in 1835, there was 
much confusion, during which the lights were suddenly extinguished. 
The meeting was partly made up of a faction of the Democrats, called 
the Equal Rights party. Some of these were provided with what were 
then known as loco-foco matches (invented in 1829), and the candles 
were soon relighted. Thence this party became known as the Loco- 
Foco party. 



POLITICAL PARTIES. 501 

of the Whigs, Free-Soilers, Americans, and other minor 
organizations. It advocated a high protective tariff, strong 
central government, and the non-extension of slavery. It 
continues one of the leading parties of the country,^ 

National Prohibition Party. — This organization, often 
called the Temperance party, was formed in 1869, and advo- 
cates the prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxi- 
cating liquors.^ 

Greenback Party. — This organization was formed in 
1876, and advocated an unlimited issue of "greenbacks," or 
government paper currency. It soon disappeared. 

People's Party. — An organization of farmers, known as 
the Farmers' Alliance, was formed about 1873, for the pur- 
pose of securing legislation in favor of agricultural interests. 
In 1885 a similar party was formed, under the name of 
Farmers' Union. These parties were combined in 1889 as 
the National Farmers' Alliance, whose platform made more 
extended and radical demands. 

In addition to these there have been various labor par- 
ties, the United Labor, the Progressive Labor, the National, 
etc., of which the Union Labor party, formed in 1887, be- 
came the successor. From these various organizations in 
favor of agriculture and labor arose in 1891 the People's 
or Populist party, which was strongly radical in its demands. 

^ In 1860 a Southern section of the Democratic party, favoring slavery, 
took the title of the National Democratic party. Another Southern 
party, formed from fragments of the Whigs and Americans, called 
itself the Constitutional Union party. They each made a nomination 
in that year. 

^ In 1871 a reform section of the Republican party fused with the 
Democrats, under the name of the Liberal Republican. It disappeared 
in 1876. The " Stalwarts" were a section of the Republicans who sup- 
ported Grant for a third term in 1880, and the "Mugwumps" the inde- 
pendent Republicans who opposed Blaine in 1884. 



502 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Still more radical was the Socialist parly, Avliidi has aikon 
part in all presidential elections since 1892. In 1012 was 
formed the Pro(;ressive party, tlio oiitcomc of a revolt from 
the Republicans.! 

4. THE STORY OF SLAVERY. 

Introduction of Slavery.— In the annals of Virginia for 
1619 we find the following remark by Rolfe, who married 
Pocahontas and introduced the culture of tobacco : '' About 
the last of August came in a Dutch marine-of-war, that sold 
us 20 Negars." With this brief record began the long chain 
of events that led to the great Civil War. 

At that period slavery was common in the civilized world, 
and all the maritime nations of Europe traded in negroes. 
There were already multitudes of slaves in the West Indies, 
and now they were introduced into the first British colony. 

The Apprentice System.— Slaves did not increase rapidly 
in Virginia. Numbers of " apprentices," as they were called, 
were sent to that and most of the other colonies. These 
were whites, who were indentured to the planters for a 
number of years, and kept in a state of servitude that was 
like slavery. Some of them were criminals, some prisoners 
of war, some kidnapped persons, some homeless children, 
while some had bound themselves voluntarily that they 
might get to America. 

Spread of Slavery. — The system of slave-holding grad* 
ually extended until every colony had slaves. Oglethorpe 

1 The 1896 and 1900 elections brought new parties and factions 
into the field, including the Silver Republican and the National (gold) 
Democratic, — which opposed the main bodies of their respective par- 
ties on the question of the monetary standard, — and two factions of 
tlie Pupulisl party. There were also the Nationalist, the Social Dem- 
ocratic, the I'liitt'd Christian, and otli.'r small organizations. 



THE STORY OF SLAVERY. 503 

tried to keep them out of Georgia, but failed. Slaves were 
never very numerous in the North. They v^^ere of no par- 
ticular advantage in the fields, and were kept chiefly in the 
cities, as house-servants. In the South they were princi- 
pally employed as field-hands, and proved very useful in 
colonial times in the cultivation of tobacco, indigo, and rice. 
Malarial fever made the rice-fields dangerous to whites, 
while it seldom attacked the blacks. 

Growth of Slavery. — By the year 1740 about one hun- 
dred and thirty thousand negroes had been brought to this 
country. By 1776 more than three hundred thousand had 
been brought here, and there were probably five hundred 
thousand in the country. In 1790 there were six hundred 
and fifty-seven thousand slaves in the South and forty thou- 
sand three hundred in the North. These were found in 
every State except Massachusetts — and Maine, which was 
part of it. New York had more than twenty thousand. 
Here they were employed on the farms as well as in the 
houses. Indentured servants largely took the place of slaves 
in Pennsylvania. 

The State constitution of Vermont (not yet admitted to 
the Union) in 1777, of Massachusetts in 1780, and of New 
Hampshire in 1783, abolished slavery. Pennsylvania pro- 
vided for gradual abolition in 1780, Rhode Island and Con- 
necticut in 1784, New York in 1799, and New Jersey in 
1804. By 1810 there were no slaves in the States north of 
the Mason and Dixon line. 

Slave Insurrections. — The first serious insurrection of 
the slaves took place in New York City in 1712. They were 
treated severely, twenty-four being put to death, some of 
them in the cruel ways then common. An uprising of slaves 
took place in South Carolina in 1740, and was only quelled 
by force of arms. In 1741, on an alarm of an intended 



504 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

insurrection in New York City, thirty-three slaves were 
executed, thirteen of them being put to death by fire. In 
those days people were far more cruel than they are to- 
day. 

Objections to Slavery. — Slavery was objected to at an 
early date, and movements in favor of emancipation began 
soon after 1700. Many of the people of Virginia, and even 
of Carolina, showed a preference for white labor. The 
rapid increase of slaves was due to England, not to Amer- 
ica. Laws to restrict the importation of slaves were numer- 
ous in colonial times, but Great Britain found the slave-trade 
profitable and persisted in sending negroes, whom the colo- 
nists were forced to accept.^ 

The feeling of Americans in the eighteenth century is 
shown by the action of the Second Continental Congress, 
which, on April 6, 1776, resolved "that no slaves should 
be imported into any of the thirteen united colonies." This 
decree was not carried out. A second indication was 
shown in 1787, in the ordinance for the government of the 
Northwest Territory, which decreed that slavery should be 
forever excluded from that Territory. In 1790 a petition 
was presented to Congress, headed by the name of Benja- 
min Franklin, asking for legislation looking to the ultimate 
extinction of slavery, Washington and Jefferson both 
favored this measure. It was fully debated in Congress, 
which finally decided that this question belonged to the 
States, and was beyond the powers of the Federal govern- 
ment. 

Slavery in the Constitution. — The word " slave" does 
not occur in the Constitution. Slaves are designated as 



* Bancroft sa^s, "The sovereigns of England and Spain wpie the 
greatest slave-merchants in the world." 



THE STORY OF SLAVERY. 505 

" other persons" and " such persons." But in drafting the 
Constitution the question arose whether slaves should be 
counted in reckoning the number of Representatives in 
Congress to which each State was entitled. Finally it was 
agreed that three-fifths of the slaves should be counted. 
Then arose the question of the slave-trade. Should this 
be continued. It was finally decided that no slaves should 
be brought into the country after 1807. It was also agreed 
that runaway slaves should be returned to their owners. 

The Cotton-Gin. — Up to 1793 slavery was not a highly 
popular institution North or South. It might have grad- 
ually died out but for the invention, in that year, of the 
cotton-gin. Before then it had not been profitable to raise 
cotton in this country. Afterward it became very profit- 
able, and slaves became highly important to the South, as 
workers in the cotton-fields. Slavery was also important to 
cotton manufacturers in the North, and the movement for 
abolition nearly disappeared. In 1807 Congress passed an 
act, in accordance with the Constitution, abolishing the 
slave-trade after January 1, 1808. Since then no slaves 
have been legally imported into this country. 

The Louisiana Purchase. — The purchase of the great 
territory of Louisiana by President Jefferson in 1803 opened 
the way for a new slavery question. Slavery had been 
abolished in the Northwest Territory ; should it be admitted 
to the territory west of the Mississippi ? The South advo- 
cated it ; the North opposed it, on the ground that it would 
give the slave States a controlling majority in Congress. 
The question was finally settled in 1820 by the Missouri 
Compromise. Under this, Missouri was admitted as a slave 
State, but with the condition that all new States north of 
the parallel of 36° 30' should be free States. This removed 
the question from Congress until 1854. 



506 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

The Liberator. — Meanwhile, a sentiment in favor of the 
emancipation of slaves arose in the North. Gradual aboli- 
tion v^as advocated, and a paper was published in Baltimore 
on this basis, on which was engaged a young man named 
William Lloyd Garrison. In 1831 he took a new and 
radical step. On January 1 of that year he began in Boston 
the publication of a newspaper named TJie Liberator^ in 
which he advocated " the immediate and unconditional 
emancipation of every slave held in the United States." 
This new and extreme demand raised a storm. The South- 
ern planters said that the editor must be mad. Northerners 
generally seemed to hold the same opinion. Garrison was 
a man of one idea, and he worked away on that idea until 
he won many followers. Abolition sentiment began to 
spread. 

Abolition Societies. — In 1832, Garrison founded the 
New England Anti-Slavery Society, In 1833 a convention 
at Philadelphia founded the American Anti-Slavery Society. 
In 1831 a negro insurrection broke out in Virginia in which 
more than sixty people were murdered. In consequence 
of all this a feeling of excitement arose ; the gradual abo- 
lition idea disappeared ; the slave laws were made more 
severe ; many Southerners believed that Garrison was 
seeking to rouse the slaves to massacre their masters. 

Northern Sympathy. — In the North there was much 
sympathy with the South. Garrison and his party were 
looked upon as dangerous fanatics. Abolition meetings 
were broken up by mobs. On one occasion a riot broke 
out in Boston, in which Garrison was dragged through the 
streets with a rope tied round his body. His life was saved 
with great difficulty. 

This violence continued until about 1840. But in spite 
of it the abolition sentiment grew. In a few years nearly 



THE STORY OF SLAVERY. 507 

two thousand societies were formed. Petitions against the 
extension of slavery were poured into Congress. John 
Quincy Adams, who was tlieir leading advocate, sometimes 
presented more than two hundred of them in a single day, 
despite the opposition of Southern members. 

The Underground Railroad, — While all this was going 
on, many slaves were escaping to the North, where they 
were sheltered and protected by the abolitionists. Slaves 
were rescued from the officers who sought to arrest them, 
and many were aided to escape, and were concealed and 
passed on secretly to Canada. This grew into a regular 
system, which became known as the Underground Rail- 
road. It was aided by the feeling of opposition to the new 
fugitive slave law. Several States passed laws to prevent 
negroes from being seized and returned without trial to 
slavery. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin. — In 1852 was published a book 
whose influence was remarkable. This was Mrs. Stowe's 
" Uncle Tom's Cabin," which depicted in vivid dramatic 
language the darker aspects of slavery. It was read by 
millions, roused strong feeling, and added enormously to 
the number of abolitionists. 

The Kansas Troubles. — In 1854 an act was passed by 
Congress which virtually repealed the Missouri Compromise. 
In Kansas, which came within the free territory fixed by 
that compromise, it was left to the decision of the inhabitants 
whether it should be admitted as a slave or a free State. 
Civil war on a small scale ensued. In the end the North- 
ern party won, but the feeling of bitterness grew more 
intense. 

The Dred Scott Decision. — In 1857 a negro named 
Dred Scott claimed freedom from his master on the plea 
that he had lived with him for years in a free State. The 

33 



508 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Supreme Court decided against his plea, and affirmed that 
owners might take their slaves into any State without for- 
feiting their rights. This decision, which opened the way 
for the taking of slaves into the free States, increased the 
strength of abolitionism. 

The John Brown Raid. — John Brown's raid upon the 
United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry in 1859, and his 
proclamation of freedom to the neighboring slaves, was 
another important event in the history of slavery. His 
effort added greatly to the irritation of the South, and 
increased the general excitement on the great question of 
the day. 

The Republican Party. — The growth of abolition sen- 
timent in the North played a leading part in the forma- 
tion of the new Republican party, which in 1856 showed 
strength enough to gain eleven States for its candidate. In 
1860 it swept the North, and elected Abraham Lincoln to 
the Presidency. 

Slavery in the War. — Civil war followed. Lincoln de- 
clared that it was his duty to restore the Union, not to 
suppress slavery. But some action on this subject could 
not be avoided. It pressed itself on the attention of Union 
generals. In May, 1861, General Butler refused to return 
some fugitive slaves to their owner, saying that they were 
"contraband of war." In August, 1861, General Fremont 
issued a proclamation proclaiming the freedom of the slaves 
of enemies of the United States. This action was annulled 
by the President, as was also a subsequent proclamation by 
General Hunter, who declared the slaves in South Carolina, 
Georgia, and Florida to be free. 

The Emancipation Proclamation. — Lincoln, meanwhile, 
was carefully considering the subject, and at length decided 
that the sentiment in the North in favor of freeing the 



PROGRESS OF FINANCE. 509 

slaves was so strong that it was time for him to act. He 
waited a suitable time to speak, and this seemed to come 
after the battle of Antietam. He therefore, on September 
22, 1862, issued a proclamation, in which he stated that 
on the first day of January, 1863, " all persons held as 
slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the 
people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United 
States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free." 

The Thirteenth Amendment. — The Emancipation Proc- 
lamation did not free all the slaves. Those in territory 
under Union control at the time of its issue remained in 
slavery. The final step was taken in 1865 when Congress 
and the States adopted an amendment to the Constitution 
which forever abolished slavery within the Kmits of the 
United States. 

Results of Emancipation. — During the period that has 
since elapsed the bitter feeling which once existed regard- 
ing slavery has happily passed away. A new and satisfac- 
tory system of labor has arisen, and slavery would not be 
accepted again were the opportunity offered. Its aboli- 
tion has stimulated a more varied series of industries in 
the South, manufacturing is growing there with highly en- 
couraging rapidity, and a condition of wealth and pros- 
perity is arising which certainly could not have appeared 
in so brief a time under the former conditions of slave 
labor. 

5. PROGRESS OF FINANCE. 

Colonial Finance. — The money needed to conduct the 
affairs of the colonies was raised by various forms of tax- 
ation. Quit-rents, or small annual payments for grants of 
land, satisfied the king and the proprietaries. Virginia laid 
an export duty on tobacco. Other colonies raised money 



510 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

by duties and port charges. To some extent money was 
obtained by direct taxation, or taxes on the property and 
products of the people. But the government expenses 
were light and taxation was rarely a burden. The most 
expensive government was that of New York, due largely 
to its border wars. Here the taxes were levied in an unjust 
and oppressive manner that caused much irritation. 

Paper Money. — The expensive Port Royal expedition of 
Massachusetts in 1690 threw that colony into debt, and 
paper money was issued as a temporary expedient. Wars 
and other causes in time brought debt upon the other colo- 
nies, and all except Virginia followed this example. This 
paper currency depreciated largely in value, but it was grad- 
ually redeemed with money raised by taxation, and the 
system worked fairly well in enabling the colonies to meet 
sudden emergencies. 

The colonies vigorously retained the right of taxing 
themselves, and in many cases of paying their own officials, 
and the attempt of the British government to tax them 
without their consent was the main cause of the Revolu- 
tionary War. 

Colonial Coinage. — The people of the colonies, in their 
early days, employed various substitutes for money. Wam- 
pum (the circulating medium of the Indians) was used,^ 
also furs and cotton cloth. Corn and bullets at times 
served for money, and in Virginia tobacco long did the duty 
of coin, passing as money according to its market value. 

' The Dutch, finding that, the Indians would receive wampum for 
furs, made it themselves. It was made of sea-shells rubbed smooth, 
cut into pieces, pierced with holes, and strung. It came to pass as 
money between the whites, and the first church in New Jersey is said 
to have been paid for by contributions of wampum, each string being 
worth about a dollar. 



PROGRESS OF FINANCE. 



511 




Pine-Tp.ee Shilling. 



A mint was established in Boston in 1652 which issued 
silver coins of several values. These bore various devices, 
the best known be- 
ing the " Pine-Tree" 
shilling. Maryland 
in 1659 had shil- 
lings, sixpences, and 
pennies, coined in 
England by Lord 
Baltimore. In 1722 
Great Britain issued 

a coinage for America, the coins being twopence, pence, and 
half-pence. Several of the States issued coins during the 
Revolution. 

Revolutionary Finances. — The Continental Congress was 
given no power to tax the States. The people were poor. 
They had lately come out of an expensive war, carried on 
by the aid of paper money, which had sunk in value. Con- 
gress adopted the colonial plan of issuing paper money, but 
it failed to demand from the States the power of laying 

taxes to provide for the 
redemption of this money, 
and the currency soon 
began to sink in value. 

The first issue was for 
two million dollars, the 
second for one million 
dollars, the third for three 
million dollars. More 
was soon needed, and 
more was issued, until the 
total grew very large for so poor a country. The mistake 
was made of supposing that the war would be very short. 




Continental Money. 



512 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

As the war went on the financial difficulty grew great. A 
Confederation was formed, but it left Congress without the 
power of laying taxes, and the States contributed very little 
toward its support. In the later years of the war some 
money was borrowed from France, Holland, and Spain, 
and some loans were obtained from the people. But the 
paper-mill continued the chief resource, and in the end the 
currency became almost worthless. 

Later Finances. — At the end of the Revolution the coun- 
try was deeply in debt and the government destitute of 
credit. There was abundance of paper money, but no one 
would take it for goods. In 1781, Robert Morris, who had 
lent much to the government during the war, was made 
Superintendent of Finance. He established at Philadelphia 
the Bank of North America, the oldest bank in this country. 
By its aid, by that of his own means and credit, and by 
some foreign loans, he partly relieved the strain. But Con- 
gress continued without power, the States gave it very little 
help, claims remained unpaid, and the country was in a 
bankrupt condition. Even Robert Morris was not repaid 
tlie money he had advanced, and the ungrateful country 
permitted its benefactor to go to prison for debt. 

Hamilton's Methods. — The new Constitution changed 
the situation by giving Congress the power of taxation. 
Alexander Hamilton was made Secretary of the Treasury. 
He found the debt of the country to be over seventy-five 
million dollars, a heavy burden for the United Slates at that 
time ; but by his wise methods the burden was soon lifted. 
He persuaded Congress to assume the debt of the States, 
and undertook to pay the whole debt, including the de- 
preciated Continental currency. For this purpose lie had a 
tax laid on imported goods and on distilled spirits. A mint 
and a national bank were established at Philadelphia. The 



PROGRESS OF FINANCE. 513 

whole debt was made a government fund, at interest, and a 
sinking fund was founded for its gradual payment. These 
measures restored the credit of the government. 

Progress of the Debt, — Now that the people were re- 
ceiving interest on their claims, and could sell them or 
pass them off in trade, their payment was not demanded. 
For ten years the debt was not reduced, there being 
heavy expenses from the Indian wars and the naval war 
with France. After 1801 the debt began to decrease. In 
that year the internal revenue taxes were abolished, and 
the government afterward depended on import duties 
alone. 

In 1812, on the outbreak of the second war with Great 
Britain, the debt w^as forty-five million dollars. To pay the 
expenses of this war loans were made amounting to over 
eighty million dollars ; but so great were the discounts and 
depreciation that the government received only thirty-four 
million dollars from these loans. A new charter had been 
refused to the United States Bank, and the notes of the 
State banks, which succeeded it, sank greatly in value. In 
1816 the public debt was over one hundred and twenty- 
seven million dollars. 

Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, demanded an internal 
revenue tax and a restoration of the United States Bank. 
After much opposition in Congress he finally obtained both. 
In 1817 the internal taxes were again taken off, and from 
that time until 1861 the government depended on import 
duties for its revenue. 

The Debt Paid.— Twenty years afterward (1836) the 
United States found itself out of debt, and with a large sum 
of money on hand. Part of this came from the tariff duties, 
part from the sale of public lands. Congress decreed that 
this surplus, less five million dollars retained, should be 



514 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

divided among the States in proportion to their population. 
The sum to be divided was over thirty-seven million dollars. 
But after three-fourths of it had been paid, the financial 
panic of 1837 came on, and the country found itself on the 
verge of bankruptcy. 

Causes of the Trouble. — President Jackson had vetoed 
the bill to renew the charter of the United States Bank, and 
removed the public money from its vaults. This money 
was deposited in State banks, and was freely loaned to 
speculators. A panic followed, many of the State banks 
failed, the public money was lost, and the government 
became unable to pay its debts. 

Treasury notes, or government paper money, which had 
been issued during the war of 1812, were again issued, 
money was borrowed, and the difficulty was thus got over. 
Subsequently what is known as the Sub-Treasury plan was 
adopted, the public money being kept in the United States 
Treasury building at Washington and in sub-treasuries in 
the principal cities. This method is still in use. It has the 
disadvantage of withdrawing large sums of money from 
circulation, and thus reducing the amount of currency in 
the hands of the people. 

The Civil "War Period. — When the Civil War began the 
public debt was about sixty million dollars. It increased 
with great rapidity, money being freely borrowed. To 
meet the expense the tariff was increased, taxes were laid 
on many articles, and a tax was laid on the incomes of the 
people. Treasury notes were issued in abundance. The 
loans authorized reached the high total of $2,600,000,000. 
On the 1st of September, 1865, the debt of the United 
States was $2,756,431,751. The Confederate States had 
also a lai^e debt, principally in the form of paper money, 
which had lost all its value through depreciation. 



PKOGRESS OF FINANCE. 515 

Paying the Debt. — In later years the finances of the 
country were occupied in reducing its debt. Its paper money 
had greatly depreciated in value, at one time a dollar in 
gold being worth nearly three dollars in paper. For years 
the business of the country was conducted on the paper 
money of the government, and that issued by the national 
banks which the government had established during the 
war. The money of these banks was not like that of the 
old State banks. They bought government securities and 
deposited them in the United States Treasury, so that the 
government became responsible for their bank-notes. The 
credit of the country grew, till its paper became as valu- 
able as gold, and on January 1, 1879, specie payments 
were resumed. In subsequent years the amount of the 
debt was greatly reduced, but the expenses of the war Avith 
Germany greatly added to it, many billions of dollars being 
borrowed. " A new banking system was introduced in 
1914, a series of great central banks, known as Federal 
Reserve Banks, being established. These, twelve in num- 
ber, were placed under government supervision, their pur- 
pose being to prevent financial convulsions by holding in 
reserve a large body of currency. 

United States Coinage. — The decimal system of United 
States coins was suggested by Robert Morris, shortly after 
the Revolution. Jefferson suggested that the dollar should 
be the monetary unit. There was no coinage (except some 
copper coins) until after the establishment of the United 
States Mint in 1791, the first coins being issued in 1792. 

The total United States coinage to the end of the fiscal 
year 1914-15 was: Gold coins, $3,378,099,628; silver 
coin.s, $989,298,671 ; copper, bronze, and nickel coins, 
$71,699,149; total, $4,439,067,448. 



516 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Silver Coinage. — The recent great interest in silver coin- 
age calls for some special statement on this subject. The 
coinage of silver dollars was authorized April 2, 1792, and 
began in 1794, at the ratio of fifteen ounces of silver to one 
of gold. The coinage was to be free and unlimited and the 
dollars to be legal tender for all debts. In 1834 an act of 
Congress was passed to reduce the weight of gold coins. 
This made the ratio 16.002 to 1. In 1837 the ratio was 
again changed, and was made 15.988 to 1. This ratio still 
holds good. It is usually called 16 to 1. The gold dollar 
contains 23,22 grains of pure gold ; the silver dollar 371.25 
grains of pure silver. Each is alloyed with ten per cent, of 
copper, so that each is nine-tenths pure metal and one-tenth 
copper. 

In 1873 the coinage of silver dollars was discontinued. 
The silver dollar was then worth more than a gold dollar, 
and none had been in circulation for years. Up to that 
time the total coinage of silver dollars had been $8,045,838. 
In 1878 the coinage of silver dollars was resumed, under 
a law which said that not less than two million or more 
than four million dollars' worth of bullion should be pur- 
chased monthly. They were to be legal tender for all 
debts unless otherwise stipulated. The Sherman Silver 
Bill, passed in 1890, required the purchase of not less than 
four million dollars in silver bullion monthly. This bill 
was repealed in 1893, and since then no silver has been 
purchased. Up to that date the total coinage of standard 
silver dollars had been over four hundred and thirty-one 
million dollars. Meanwhile, the mercantile value of silver 
had fallen until the bullion value of a dollar was little more 
than fifty cents. In 1900 Congress passed a law making 
gold the sole standard of value in this country, the gold 
dollar being made the monetary unit. 



POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. 517 

6. POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. 

The Original Colonists. — The territory of the United 
States was settled by people from five nations of Europe, 
Great Britain, France, Spain, Holland, and Sweden. The 
great bulk of the colonists were English. Of the original 
colonists, aside from the English, only the French of Louis- 
iana and Canada and the Dutch of New York have left any 
distinct traces. 

Later Immigrants. — Subsequently to the original settle- 
ments, immigrants came from various countries of Europe. 
There was a considerable immigration of Scotch-Irish,^ 
several hundred of whom settled at Londonderry, New 
Hampshire, and others in the Carolinas and Georgia. Many 
came to Pennsylvania, five thousand arriving in Philadel- 
phia in 1729. They formed a very thrifty and useful portion 
of the population. 

Another very desirable class of immigrants were the 
French Huguenots, who settled in every colony, but mostly 
in the Carolinas. They brought with them the mulberry 
and olive and introduced many choice varieties of pears. 
Germany also sent large numbers of useful immigrants, 
driven from their country, like those already named, by re- 
ligious persecution. Thirteen thousand Germans from the 
Palatinate were sent over in Queen Anne's time, four thou- 
sand of them going to New York, others to the South. To 
Georgia came Moravians from Austria, fleeing from perse- 
cution, German Lutherans, and Highland Scotch. 

The Pennsylvania Dutch. — Among the most persistent 
in their characteristics of the non-English settlers have been 

^ Presbyterians from Scotland who had settled in the north of 
Ireland. 



518 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

those known as the " Pennsylvania Dutch," though really 
of German descent. In 1776 the population of Pennsylva- 
nia was only about one-half English. One-third was Ger- 
man and the rest Swedish and Irish. The Germans remain 
a distinct element of the population, still speaking a lan- 
guage known as Pennsylvania Dutch, but really the provin- 
cial German of the past century, with many changes in 
dialect. They are industrious farmers, very conservative 
in character and habits. 

The Dutch of New York have been also persistent in 
character, and a number of customs, now wide-spread in 
the country, were introduced by them. 

The Negroes and Indians. — The negroes, who came here 
as slaves, but are now all free, constitute a strongly marked 
and numerous element of the population. The remnant of 
the Indian population, now settled in communities and on 
reservations, are also strongly marked in their characteris- 
tics, though they may in time be absorbed by the whites. 

A Mixed Population. — These various early elements, 
with the still more varied immigrants who have sought this 
country within the present century, make up a population 
of an unusual variety of origin. Yet it has largely amal- 
gamated, and may eventually combine into a single new 
type of man. What that type will be it is yet too early 
to say. 

Numbers of the Population. — Just how many people 
were in this country at various colonial periods we do 
not know. It is believed that in 1689 there w^ere about 
200,000 ; in 1750, about 1,100,000 ; in 1763, about 1,800,000 ; 
and in 1776, about 2,500,000. In 1790 the first census gave 
a population of 3,929,214. Since then the population has 
doubled, on the average, every twenty-five years, and in 
1910 was 91,972,267, 



POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. 519 

States and Cities. — In 1776 Virginia had the largest pop- 
ulation, — about five hundred thousand. Pennsylvania had 
about four hundred thousand, and Massachusetts about 
three hundred thousand. Connecticut, New York, Mary- 
land, North Carohna, and South Carolina had about two 
hundred thousand each, and the other colonies each less 
than one hundred thousand. 

Of the cities, Philadelphia, the largest, had in 1790 a pop- 
ulation of 42,520; New York, 33,131; Boston, 18,038; 
Charleston, 16,359 ; and Baltimore, 13,503. Of inland 
towns, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, was the largest, with some- 
thing over six thousand inhabitants. There were only five 
cities with over ten thousand population. In 1910 there 
were over six hundred. 

Location of the People. — In 1790 nearly all the Amer- 
ican people lived along the Atlantic seaboard, few having 
gone more than two hundred and fifty miles westward. 
The centre of population was then about twenty-three miles 
east of Baltimore. Since then this centre has moved stead- 
ily westward, keeping nearly on the same parallel of latitude 
(39°), at the rate of about fifty miles every ten years. In 
1890 it had reached a point near Greensburg, in southeast- 
ern Indiana. It may be further said that there has been a 
steady tendency toward increase of city life. In 1790 only 
three out of each one hundred people hved in cities. In 
1840 this had increased to nine, and in 1900 to thirty-one 
per one hundred. 

The Movement Westward. — After the Revolution an 
active movement westward set in, and soon towns arose 
west of the Alleghanies. Settlements were made in Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee at an earlier date. The first settle- 
ment in Ohio was at Marietta, in 1788. In the same year 
was founded a village, which in 1790 was named Cin- 



520 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

cinnati. In 1803, St. Louis was a little village of log cabins, 
containing about eight hundred people. On the lakes De- 
troit had been settled early by the French. In 1831 a dozen 
settlers had built their cabins around Fort Dearborn, on 
Lake Michigan. In 1833 this was a town of five hundred 
to six hundred people, and took the name of Chicago. 
To-day it is a city of more than two million inhabitants. Many 
Uke stories might be told of the marvellous rapidity with 




An E>riGRANT Tkain. 

which the enterprising American people have settled the 
great West, pushing their way in mucli less than a century 
to the Pacific, and occupying all the habitable territory be- 
tween. In the history of mankind there is nothing that 
bears comparison with it. 

Routes of TraveL — The Ohio formed a ready channel 
of movement westward from the Middle States, bold navi- 
gators daring in rude craft the arrows and bullets of am- 
bushed warriors. In the South hardy pioneers made their 



POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. 521 

way over the difficult barrier of the mountains. In the 
North they pushed westward through the forests, driving 
before them a frontier of hostile savages as they went. 

The National Road. — The first great national road was 
begun at Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac, and grad- 
ually extended across the mountains to Wheeling, Virginia 
(now West Virginia), on the Ohio. During the Monroe ad- 
ministration this was extended into Ohio, and eventually 
it was carried by the State governments to the Mississippi. 
It was a broad and solid avenue, the first great work of 
road-making in the United States. Along it moved a con- 
stant stream of emigrant wagons, often so close as to form 
a continuous line. Day by day, year by year, they moved 
onward, while the great West gradually filled up with the 
grand army of thrift and enterprise. 

This road has long since been superseded by the vast net- 
work of railroad lines, and the slow-moving flat-boat has 
yielded to the rapid steamboat. By their aid the progress 
of settlement has been greatly intensified, and the hardships 
of emigration have almost disappeared through the replace- 
ment of the lumbering emigrant wagon by the iron horse 
and its swift-moving train. 

Immigration. — While the older population of this country 
has been flowing in a steady stream westward, new settlers 
have been pouring into the country eastward. Immigration 
has been more or less continuous since the date of the origi- 
nal settlements, but toward the middle of the present cen- 
tury it began to grow very large, an earnest desire spring- 
ing up among the poverty-stricken and oppressed laboring 
people of Europe to enjoy the freedom and plenty of this 
prosperous country. A line of steamships began to cross 
the ocean in 1840; others followed; immigrants poured in 
at the rate of three thousand per week ; and in the decade 



522 iSTAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

between 1840 and 1850 nearly two million people were 
thus added to our population. This was almost twice as 
many as had arrived between 1800 and 1840. They were 
largely Irish, their great migration being due to the famine 
of 1845-46. Germany sent almost as many, while few came 
from other countries. 

Change in Character of Immigration. — Until and for 
some time after the Civil War the immigrants were generally 
desirable in character, and readily assimilated with the peo- 
ple. Since then there has been a change. The numbers 
of immigrants have enormously increased and they have 
become lower in grade. Formerly they were mainly from 
Great Britain and the Teutonic countries. Now they are 
largely from Italy and Eastern Europe. Formerly they 
were from the better classes of farmers and artisans. Now 
they are largely from the most ignorant and untrained class 
of laborers. Numbers of paupers, criminals, and others of 
the lowest class of Europe have emigrated to this country, 
and a strong feeling of objection to such immigrants has 
grown up. The total immigration to this country since 1790 
has been about twenty millions. Of these, more than five 
millions came in the ten years from 1880 to 1890, and 
nearly nine millions in the ten years from 1900 to 1910. 

The Chinese. — Chinese immigration to this country began 
about 1850. It increased rapidly after 1880, more than one 
hundred thousand landing in a few years. They worked 
for very low wages, thus disturbing the industrial conditions 
of the country. They brought no families, their purpose 
being to get what they could out of the country and then 
return home to enjoy it. It began to appear as if America 
would be flooded from the lowest class of Chinese laborers, 
who could not assimilate with our people and might in time 
lower the grade of our civilization. Consequently a law was 



• TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 523 

passed forbidding their immigration. Their numbers are 
now steadily decreasing, as many go home and few return. 

Other Restrictive Laws. — Congress has passed laws to 
prevent the immigration of paupers and criminals, of those 
brought here under contracts to perform certain labor, and 
in general of all not able to pay their own way and without 
means to begin life in this country. Yet these laws have 
not proved sufficient. Undesirable immigrants still reach 
our shores in large numbers, and more stringent laws are 
demanded. It has long been considered desirable to keep 
out all persons who cannot read, and laws to this effect have 
been several times enacted, but all these met with Presi- 
dential vetoes. In 1917 such a law was passed over the 
President's veto, so that witli a few exceptions only those 
able to read ,can now enter the country. It is hoped that 
this will restrict inimisrration to a better class. 



7. TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 

Early TraveL — The facilities for travel in 'colonial times 
were small, and few people left their homes. Most of the 
travel took place by boats on navigable streams and vessels 
along the seaboard, land travel being very slow and attended 
with many hardships. Inland travel was mainly performed 
on foot through the forest, or on foot or horseback over 
rude and primitive roads. As the roads grew better some 
carriages appeared, but travel continued chiefly on horse- 
back or by boat. Very little took place, and even in Phila- 
delphia, the largest city, a stranger in the streets was looked 
at with curiosity. 

Dr. Franklin's Journey. — An interesting example of this 
is given by Dr. Franklin, in his story of how he came from 
New York to Philadelphia in 1723. Part of this journey 
was made with great difficulty by boat from New York to 

8-( 



524 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Amboy, and part by boat down the Delaware. Across New 
Jersey he went on foot, the whole journey taking five or six 
days. By coasting vessels, with favorable winds, this dis- 
tance could be traversed in three days. 

Lack of Roads. — Franklin found roads, but through 
most of the country nothing better existed than Indian 
trails and bridle-paths. Such goods as needed to be trans- 
ported were carried on pack-horses. In 1753, Washington 
travelled five hundred and sixty miles through the wilder- 
ness, the journey occupying forty-two days. It could now 
be performed in less than a day. No wheeled carriages 
were used until the middle of the eighteenth century, and 
few until after the Revolution. Those who could not 
afford a horse w^ent on foot. 

Military Roads. — Braddock, on his march toward Fort 
Duquesne, made a road as he went. Subsequently Gen- 
eral Forbes, on a similar march, spent so much time in 
road-building as almost to defeat the object of the enter- 
prise. Washington accomplished it by making a rapid 
advance to Fort Duquesne through the woods. Franklin 
came to Braddock's aid by providing for him a number of 
the famous Conestoga wagons of Pennsylvania. These 
were large, canvas-covered wagons used by the farmers 
and traders of that State to transport their produce to 
Philadelphia. They were each drawn by six or eight 
horses. At one time as many as ten thousand traversed 
the roads leading to that city. 

Stag-e Travel. — It was late in the eighteenth century 
before a stage-coach line was started between Philadelphia 
and New York, the two largest cities in the country. At 
first a wagon running twice a week sufficed for all the travel. 
The roads were bad and the travel slow, about three miles 
an hour being the average time. In 1766 coaches were put 



TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 



525 



on that made the journey in two days. They were adver- 

In wet seasons the wagons 



machines, 
the 




The Conestoga WA(iON. 



tised as " flying 
often stuck in 
mud, and had to be 
pulled out with the 
aid of the passengers. 
The first stage 
route was from Prov- 
idence to Boston. 
The journey took 
two days. In 1789 
it took a week to 

travel from Boston to New York by stage. There were no 
bridges, and all large rivers had to be crossed in boats. In 

cold weather the journey 
was a terrible one. 

Erie Canal. — After 
1800 active efforts began 
for improvement in means 
of transportation. Con- 
gress considered the im- 
portance of lending gov- 
ernment aid to the build- 
ing of roads and canals, 
and the State of New 
York undertook to build 
the great Erie Canal from 
Albany to Buffalo, a dis- 
tance of three hundred 
and sixty-three miles. This grand enterprise, carried across 
what was mainly a wilderness, took eight years for its ac- 
complishment. It was completed in 1825. Its effects were 
very important. Before it was built it took three weeks 




Fulton's STEAnrsoAT. (The Clermont.) 



526 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

and cost ten dollars to carry a barrel of flour from Buffalo 
to Albany. By the use of the canal this could be done in 
a week at a cost of thirty cents. 

The Steamboat. — The development of steam as a source 
of power led to many experiments in the moving of boats 
and carriages by steam. John Fitch succeeded in moving 
boats by steam before 1790, but Robert Fulton was the first 
to attract public attention in this direction. His boat, the 
Clermont, placed on the Hudson in 1807, took thirty-two 
hours to i)ass from New York to Albany. 




The Ocean Steamer of To-day. 



This invention made a great change in modes of travel, 
the steamboat being soon widely adopted. The first boat 
was put on the Ohio in 1811, but in a few years many 
boats were traversing the Western rivers, adding greatly to 
the westward movement of emigration. These were rude 
paddle-wheel boats. Subsequently John Ericsson invented 
the screw-propeller, which added greatly to the power of 
steamboat propulsion. 

Steamships. — It Avas soon deoniod possible to cross the 
ocean by the aid of steam, and in 1819 the Savannah, pro- 



TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 527 

pelled partly by wind and partly by steam, crossed the 
Atlantic from Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool. Vessels 
moved by steam alone followed, and in 1838 two English 
steamships entered the harbor of New York. In 1840 the 
Cunard Line of steamships was estabhshed between Liver- 
pool and Boston. Soon after a line was opened to New 
York. These were the vanguards of the vast fleet of steam- 
ships which now sail from our ports to all quarters of the 
globe. The first steam-vessels were rude affairs as com- 
pared with the " floating palaces" which now make ocean 
travel a luxury. 

The Railroad. — While Robert Fulton was experiment- 
ing with his steamboat on the Hudson, Oliver Evans was 
experimenting with the steam-carriage in the streets of 
Philadelphia. The railroad was invented in England, and 
was first used for horse traffic. George Stephenson was the 
first to invent a practical steam-carriage to run on iron 
rails. 

The railroad soon reached this country, the first one, 
completed in 1826, being a few miles long and used with 
horses. The first railroad intended for passengers was 
begun in 1828. It ran from Baltimore westward, and 
forms part of the present Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. It 
was at first worked with horses. The first American loco- 
motive was built at Baltimore by Peter Cooper (founder of 
the noble Cooper Institute of New York). The road was 
then thirteen miles long and the distance was accomplished 
in something less than an hour. A fine horse belonging to 
a Baltimore stage-coach line raced the locomotive on its 
return, but the wheezing little machine won the victory. 
That indicated the end of the stage-coach age. 

Growth of the Railroad System. — In 1830 there were 
in all twenty-three miles of railroad in the United States. 




528 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

In 1840 there were two thousand eight hundred and eight- 
teen miles, and the length doubled every five years for 

, twenty years. 

P '. There were in 

1917 more than 

two hundred and 

fifty thousand 

The Ldcomotive of To-day. mileS, equipped 

with over forty-four thousand engines and one million 
five hundred thousand cars, while the capital invested 
exceeded six billion dollars. To-day the continent can be 
crossed from New York to San Francisco in five days, three 
thousand miles being traversed in the time it took to go 
two hundred and fifty miles by stage-coach travel. The 
teas, silks, and spices of Asia, which formerly took five or 
six months to reach us, now do so in a month, while vast 
quantities of the products of our own country are carried. 

Package Delivery. — The system of carrying packages by 
express, initiated in 1839, grew to bean innnense business, 
employing thousands of railroad cars, A system of postal 
delivery of parcels, instituted by the government January 1 , 
1913, has come into active competition with the express 
companies, now carrying packages of 50 pounds weight. 

The Telegraph. — While men's bodies were being carried 
at such speed, efforts were being made to carry their thoughts 
with much greater speed. Mechanical methods of telegraphy 
had long been used, but it was not until after 1830 that ex- 
periments in electric telegraphy began to be made. The 
first electric telegraph in this country, the invention of Pro- 
fessor Morse, was completed from Baltimore to Washington 
in 1844, the first business message sent being the news of 
Polk's nomination to the Presidency by the convention at 
Baltimore. At present there are niore than two hundred and 



TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 529 

seventy thousand miles of line and more than two million 
miles of wire in this country, and there are in addition thou- 
sands of miles under the ocean, extending to other parts of 
the world. Messages can also now be sent for long distance 
without the use of wires. This, one of the most wonderful 
of modern inventions, is known as wireless telegraphy. 

The Telephone. — The telephone, first exhibited in 1876, 
now has twenty million miles of wire in use, and the 
human voice has been sent by telephone without wires 
from the Atlantic coast to Hawaii, a distance of over 4,600 
miles. 

The Street Railway. — The street railway has made sim- 
ilarly encouraging progress. Begun about forty years ago, 
and run until recently by the aid of horses, these have been 
almost entirely superseded by the aid of power engines. 
The first cable-cars ran in San Francisco in 1873. The first 
electric railway was started in Richmond, Virginia, in 1888. 
Now many thousands of miles of electric trolley roads are 
in use, extending from the cities far into the country, and 
the trolley system is beginning to supersede the steam loco- 
motive. 

From Bicycle to Aeroplane. — The bicycle, which came 
into use after 1870 and grew very popular, is now little 
used. It has been succeeded by the automobile, or motor 
vehicle for common roads, moved by various sources of 
power, which is fast taking the place of the horse. Still 
more recent is the aeroplane, or flying machine, an Ameri- 
can invention, which is now widely used. 

Postal Progress. — The first regular mail route of which 
we know in this country was started in 1672 between New 
York and Boston, by way of Hartford. It made the round 
trip once a month. In 1729 the mail between Philadelphia 
and New York was carried once a week in summer, once a 



530 STAGES OF* PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 




The Pony Express. 



fortni<,4it in winter. The mails were carried by men on 
horseback, their saddle-bags sufficing for all the letters 
sent. In remote places a mail w-as sent out when enough 
letters had collected to pay the cost of carriage. The old 
carrier is said to have jogged slowly onward, knitting stock- 
ings to pass the time. Newspapers did not then make part 
of the regular mail. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin was ap- 
pointed postmaster-gen- 
eral, and spent five w^eeks 
in making a tour of the 
country to perfect his 
plans. The service was 
much improved under 
his management. 

Postal Service in 
1790. — In 1790 there 
were seventy-five post- 
offices in the country, and five mails a week between New 
York and Philadelphia. It took two days for a letter to 
go this distance. The mail routes were then eighteen 
hundred and seveuty-five miles in length, and about two 
million letters wer^i carried yearly. They are now over 
four hundred thousand miles long and more than eight 
thousand million pieces of mail matter are carried yearly. 
There are more than fifty thousand post offices. The 
annual cost of carrying the mails is over $]0(),(K)(),000. 

Rates of Postage. — In 1792 the rates of postage on a 
single letter-sheet were eight cents for a distance under forty 
miles, ten cents under ninety miles, and so on. It cost sev- 
enteen cents to send a letter from New York to Boston and 
twenty-five cents to send one to Bichmond. Two sheets 
were charged double. In 1<S-J5 postage was reduced to live 
cents per half-ounce for distances under three hundred 



INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 531 

miles ; ten cents for greater distances. In 1851 it was re- 
duced to three cents for distances under three thousand 
miles ; six cents for greater distances. In 1863 the rate was 
made three cents for all distances. In 1883 it was reduced 
to two cents per half-ounce, and in 1885 to two cents per 
ounce. The postage was made two cents per ounce to 
Great Britain in 1908 and to Germany in 1909. A postal 
savings system was established in 1911 and a parcels post 
in 1913. 



8. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 

Agriculture. — The tillage of the ground was the industry 
to which the Americans most largely devoted themselves in 
colonial times. The forests 
gradually receded before the 
axes of the pioneers, and 
wider tracts of land were 
brought under cultivation, 
until a vast area of former 
wilderness was converted 
into fertile farms. The grains 
and fruits of Europe were in- 
troduced and cultivated, and 
certain native plants proved 
of high utility. Chief among 
these was maize or Indian- 
corn, whose culture has extended until now it is one of the 
leading food-plants of the world. Its product in this coun- 
try far surpasses that of any other grain, reaching in some 
years the enormous aggregate of over three billion bushels. 
The potato is another American food-plant whose cultiva- 
tion has spread throughout the worhl, and which forms a 
great portion of the food of mankind. 




Cutting Grass with the Scythe. 



532 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 




Threshing with the Flail. 



Tobacco. — Tobacco, found first by Raleigh's colonists in 
1585 on Roanoke Island, began to be regularly cultivated in 

Virginia in 1612. Its culture 
soon became the great industry 
of that colony. In 1619 over 
forty thousand pounds were 
shipped abroad ; in 1640 over 
one million five hundred thou- 
sand pounds. At present over 
one thousand million pounds are 
annually produced in this coun- 
try, worth about three hundred 
million dollars. A large part of 
this is grown in Kentucky, which 
has become the great tobacco- 
producing State. 

The commerce of America be- 
gan with tobacco. The demand for it in Europe grew rap- 
idly, new ground was constantly cleared for its cultivation, 
and the plantation system, with slave labor, was introduced. 
At one time it was planted even in the streets of Jamestown. 
It served as money, the salaries of clergym.en and public 
officers Avere paid in it, and until the Revolution it was 
almost the only currency of Virginia. 

"Wheat, Rice, Indigo, and Sugar. — Wheat, introduced 
from Europe, was largely cultivated in New York, New Jer- 
sey, and Pennsylvania. In the last-named State thousands 
of Conestoga wagons were used to bring the crop to Phila- 
delphia. To-day wheat is one of the most valuable agricul- 
tural products of the country and a leading article of export. 
In 1693 rice was introduced into South Carolina by a 
vessel from Madagascar. It grew luxuriantly, and soon 
became the principal product of the State. The indigo plant 



INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 533 

was introduced in 1741, and was so developed that before 
the Revolution Charleston exported over a milHon pounds 
a year. 

Another staple of considerable importance was sugar. 
The cultivation of the sugar-cane was introduced into Lou- 
isiana about 1750, but did not become important until after 
1800. The annual product of sugar in this country is now 
over one million tons, of which about three-fourths are 
produced from the sugar-beet. 

Cotton. — Another staple of Southern agriculture, cotton, 
developed very slowly, from the difficulty of removing the 
seeds from the fibre. After the invention of the cotton-gin, 
in 1793, its development was rapid, and this country is 
now the most important cotton-producing country in the 
world. The yield of 487,000 pounds in 1793 had increased 
to 38,118,000 pounds in 1804. In the year 1912 it was 
estimated at more than sixteen million bales, averaging 487 
pounds each, a total of about 7,800,000,000 pounds. 

Other Products. — The agricultural products of this coun- 
try have become enormous in quantity and widely varied in 
character. An interesting feature is the great production 
of tropical fruits, the orange being raised in vast quantities 
in Florida and California, while lemons, raisins, and other 
tropical products are largely produced. The total value of 
farm products in the United States in 1910, as given in the 
census report for that year, was $8,926,000,000. 

Animals. — None of the farm animals of Europe were 
found in this country, neither the horse, the ox, the pig, nor 
the sheep. These were all introduced by the early settlers, but 
have very largely increased. The total value of these animals 
in the United States is now over eight billion dollars, the total 
of other farm products reaching eleven billion. The only 
animal suitable for domestication found here was the bison, 



534 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 



or buffalo, as it is commonly called. Those were found in 
myriads, but no attempt was made to domosticato them, 
and they have been wantonly destroyed until only a few 
hundreds remain. 

Similarly all the birds of the farm, except the turkey, were 
introduced from Europe. Thus while America gave several 
highly useful plants to the world, it has given but one do- 
mesticated animal, the turkey. 

Agricultural Implements. — Farming in former centuries 
was a very laborious occupation. None of the labor-saving 

machines now in use were then 
known, and the severest hand 
labor W' as necessary. Grass was 
cut with the scythe, grain with 
the sickle, and threshing was 
done on the barn floor with the 
flail, or the grain was trodden 
out by the feet of animals. The 
plough in use w^as a rude affair, with iron plates roughly fas- 
tened on the mould-board. 

Results of Invention. — All this has been overcome by 
the inventive genius of our people. Reaping, mowing, and 
harvesting ma- 
chines now do - 
most of the 
work of the 
fields. The seed 
is planted, the 
grain cut and 
bound into 
sheaves, by ma- 
chines which seem to act almost with human intelligenca 
Machines thresh out the grain, swift-running railroad trains 




Colonial plough. 




Steam-Plough. 



INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 535 

convey it to market, great elevators store and load it on 
shipboard, and in a thousand ways the aid of invention has 
been called in to decrease the labor and add to the produc- 




Steam Thre'^hing-Machine. 



tiveness of the farm, and to lessen the cost of conveying its 
produce to market. 

Irrigation. — The area of farm lands in the United States 
has of late years been largely increased by irrigating the 
soil in the rainless region of the West. The water of rivers 
and mountain streams is conveyed by canals to the fertile 
lands, and there spread over the ground by numerous small 
channels. In this way millions of acres have been made 
very productive, and milHons more will be in the future. 

Fur Products. — The early colonists quickly found another 
valuable source of profit in the great number and variety 
of fur-bearing animals that dwelt in the forests of this coun- 
try, and whose furs brought high prices in Europe. At first 
these were purchased from the Indians, and to this traffic 
the Dutch settlers of New York particularly devoted them- 
selves. Then the whites began the business of hunting and 
trapping. This was particularly the case with the French 
of Canada, who penetrated the country deeply in all direc- 
tions in search of furs. 

British settlers in time vied with them in activity, and a-s 




5;36 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

early as 1670 the Hudson Bay Company was established 
for the purpose of seeking fur animals in the wintry regions 
of the far north. In time this company extended its field 

of labor to the Pacific, 
absorbing other compa- 
nies, and making a vig- 
orous effort, which hap- 
pily failed, to convert 
Oregon into a British 
colony. The quantity 
of furs obtained in the 

Harvesting and Binding Machine. tt m t 0.1 i i 

United States has now 
greatly decreased, and Alaska is the principal field remain- 
ing. There the fur seal, once of great value, is in danger of 
being entirely destroyed by reckless adventurers. 

Forestry. — The vast forests of the United States have 
proved another very valuable source of wealth. At first 
used mainly for firewood or recklessly burned to clear the 
soil, these forests have long supplied almost unlimited quan- 
tities of useful timber. The white pine of the Northern 
woods has proved of the utmost value as a source of easily 
worked wood for house- and ship-building, while from the 
pines of the South great quantities of turpentine, tar, pitch, 
and rosin have been obtained. Of hard woods, suitable 
for cabinet purposes, the supply has been very great, and 
American walnut is one of the most highly valued of woods 
for furniture-making. 

Yet the forest wealth of this country has been frightfully 
wasted, by the heedlessness of the woodsman and the care- 
lessness with which the woods have been set on fire. Much 
more timber has been burned than has been used, and 
our forests are rapidly disappearing. At present the lum- 
ber consumed in the United States annually is over fort^ 



INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 537 

billion board feet, a large part of which is used for fuel. 
About twenty million dollars' worth is destroyed every year 
by fire. 

Forest Preservation. — At the present rate of cutting and 
waste there will soon be a wood famine in this country. To 
prevent this efforts are being made to preserve the forests. 
State forest commissions have been instituted, and the 
American Forestry Association is actively at work. Forest 
reservations embracing many millions of acres have been 
made by the general government. The institution of Arbor- 
Day, for the voluntary planting of trees by the people and 
to encourage a love of trees among school-children, prom- 
ises to be very useful. In the future the reckless waste of 
the past is not Hkely to be continued. 

The Fisheries. — Another highly important field of labor 
lay in the fisheries of the Atlantic coast, which in the early 
days of this country swarmed with food fishes of great 
variety and value. Codfish were enormously abundant in 
the vicinity of Newfoundland, the shad, herring, mackerel, 
and salmon were prolific, and the whale-fisheries led to 
daring excursions into the open seas. The oyster-beds were 
also rich and extensive, and the waters of the coast fur- 
nished much of the food of the people and materials for 
export in colonial times. 

The fisheries, with the exception of that for the whale, 
still continue highly productive, the total value of water 
products for the year 1910 being $62,000,000, of which 
$15,000,000 was the product of the oyster- and clam- 
fisheries. Of recent years the very abundant salmon- 
fisheries of the Pacific coast have added greatly to the 
annual yield. For years it looked as if many of the fish 
would suffer the fate of the forests, and be destroyed by 
reckless pursuit. But the new methods of fish-culture are 



538 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

beginning to restore the former abundance of these in- 
valuable animals. 

The Fishery Dispute. — By the treaty of 1783, which 
closed the American war for independence, all the coasts, 
bays, arid fishing-banks of Canada were thrown open to 
United States fishermen. In 1814, at the close of the second 
war with Great Britain, the British peace commissioners 
held that this war had invalidated the earlier treaty, while 
the American commissioners claimed that the rights granted 
in 1783 could not be revoked. 

The matter was left open, and a dispute began which 
continued for many years. In 1818 the Americans were 
granted the right to fish outside of three marine miles from 
the Canadian coast, but the right to fish in the Bays of St. 
Lawrence, Fundy, and Chaleurs was disputed. The ques- 
tion regarding the Bay of Fundy was settled by arbitration 
in favor of the United States, but other matters remained 
open till 1871, when, by the treaty of Washington, the fish- 
eries of each country were thrown open to the fishermen of 
the other. But Great Britain claimed that the American 
fisheries were of little value, and that she ought to be paid 
for the difference in value. She claimed $14,280,000 as 
her just due for twelve years, — the period of treaty. The 
question was arbitrated, and the sum of $5,500,000 was 
awarded. In 1888, the former treaty having expired, a 
new one was signed. This fixes a three-mile limit from 
the Canadian coast within which American fishermen must 
not enter. It also reserves all bays of ten miles or less in 
width. Certain disputed questions remained, but these were 
settled in 1910, by the Hague Court of Arbitration, to the 
satisfaction of both parties. 

Manufactures. — But little manufacturing was done in 
this country in colonial times. It was prevented by the 



INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 539 



stringent regulations of the British government, which 
sought to confiije the colonies to the production of raw 
material and convert thejn into markets for British goods. 
Sheep might be raised, but their wool must be sent to 
England to w^eave. Iron might be smelted, but not a nail 
or a horseshoe must be made. The beavers from whose 
furs hats were made were native to America, but the busi- 
ness of the hatter was greatly restricted. Hats might be 
made for local use, but could not be sent from colony to 
colony, or even from one plantation to another. 

What little manufacturing took place was principally 
within the limits of the farm-house, where wool and flax 
were carded, spun, and woven into cloth by the w-omen of 
the house, while clothes, hats, shoes, furniture, and farming 
implements w^ere similarly made at home. Mrs. Washing- 
ton is said to have kept sixteen spinning-wheels going. In 
1789 there were very few manufactures within the United 
States, and the bulk of the people were farmers. 

Progress in Man- 
ufactures. — During f 
the recent century, 
and particularly since 
the close of the 
second war with 
Great Britain, the 
progress of manufac- 
tures in this country 
has been stupendous, 
and it has given rise 
to an activity of in- 
vention and a development of labor-saving machinery wliicli 
are without rivalry in the w^orld's history. As evidence of 
this it may be said that in 1909 the value of manufactured 




A Modern Power Woolen Loom. 



540 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

products in the United States was estimated in the census 
reports at the vast total of $20,672,052,000. 

Commerce. — Commercial activity early displayed itself 
in the New England colonies, where many ships were built, 
and a profitable trade was kept up with the West Indies 
and Europe. So many vessels were built for sale as to 
bring loud complaints from British builders. The exports 
were principally fish, furs, lumber, and iron. The South 
exported rice, indigo, tobacco, tar, and turpentine. The 
effort of Great Britain to confine the trade of America to 
British ports failed, and smuggling went on largely, tea and 
other luxuries being freely brought from Europe, and sugar, 
molasses, etc., from the West Indies. 

During the last century the progress of American com- 
merce kept pace with that of manufactures. Once con- 
fined to the exportation of agricultural produce and im- 
portation of manufactured goods, this country has now an 
extensive export trade, and in all the respects here men- 
tioned is to-day one of the leading nations of the world. 
On July 1, 1915, the exports of the United States for the 
fiscal year were valued at $2,965,755,675 ; the imports for 
the same year being $1,874,848,818. On July 1, 1918, the 
exports of merchandise for the fiscal year had increased to 
$5,928,285,641 ; the imports to $2,946,454,403. This con- 
siderable increase was due to war demands. 

.General Industrial Progress. — Within the nineteenth 
century there was an extraordinary increase in wealth and 
population, the former consisting of rich products frcjm 
mines and vast amounts of goods from farm and factory, 
while there has been a remarkable variety of inventions, 
including machines for almost every imaginable purpose. 



LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART, 541 

9. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 

Colonial Literature. — The early colonists were too busily 
occupied in combating with savage nature to trouble them- 
selves much about literature, science, or art. For books 
they had the Bible, and it sufficed for most of them. There 
were writers, but they produced nothing of living value. 
Most of the books were collections of sermons or treatises 
on theology. Cotton Mather, the leading early writer, 
showed his lack of intellectual development by his activity 
in the witchcraft persecution. Jonathan Edwards, the most 
famous colonial author, wrote only on theological subjects. 
He was one of the deep thinkers of the world. Benjamin 
Franklin was the only writer on general subjects whose 
works are now read. His story of his life and the homely 
wisdom of " Poor Richard's Almanac" are still good popular 
literature. And he had a pleasant vein of humor and satire 
which can still be enjoyed. 

Revolutionary Literature. — During the war for inde- 
pendence and the subsequent period men's thoughts ran 
largely on politics, and the writings were principally politi- 
cal. Patrick Henry made his famous speeches, Thomas 
Paine wrote his stirring " Common Sense" and " Crisis" 
pamphlets, Hopkinson and Trumbull produced humorous 
political poems, and Jefferson wrote that famous state 
paper, the " Declaration of Independence." The ablest 
political literature of the period is found in the " Federal- 
ist," a collection of the writings of Hamilton, Jay, and 
Madison in support of the Constitution. This has been 
called " The political classic of the United States," 

Later Literature. — Not until after the beginning of the 
nineteenth century did many Americans gain the leisure and 
culture necessary to the development of the higher order 



542 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

of literature. The first writer to acquire fame in this period 
was Washington Irving, whose humorous " Knickerbocker's 
History of New York" appeared in 1809, and his delightful 
"Sketch Book" about ten years later. In 1812, Bryant, 
then only eighteen years of age, produced his famous 
" Thanatopsis," and with it began the brilliant career of 
American poetry. Much verse had been written before, 
but little poetry. Of later poets of fame it will suffice 
here to name Poe, Whittier, Longfellow, Lowell, and 
Holmes. 

Fiction. — Shortly after the beginning of the century 
novels began to appear, but the earliest writer of lasting 
fame was Cooper, whose "Spy" appeared in 1821. Na- 
thaniel Hawthorne was the first writer of high powers to 
follow him. These two have been succeeded by numerous 
able writers of fictitious literature. 

History and Philosophy. — The United States has been 
prolific of able historians, of whom we need only name 
Bancroft, whose " History of the United States" began in 
1834; Prcscott, the author of many brilliant histories; 
Motley, the historian of the Dutch republic ; and Parkman, 
whose records of French history in this country are charm- 
ingly rendered. Of philosophical writers it will suffice to 
name Emerson, whose fame as a brilliant essayist is world- 
wide. 

Other Literature. — The scope of American literature is 
too broad for all its fields to be named in this brief re- 
view. It must suffice to speak of Wheaton, whose work on 
international law is the highest authority on the subject ; 
Webster and Worcester, who produced the first standard 
dictionaries of the English language ; and the famous works 
on ornithology of Audubon and Wilson. The list here 
given might be greatly extended by the names of living 



LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 543 

writers of fame and ability, but they are too numerous and 
varied to mention. 

Periodical Literature. — While the literature of the 
learned was thus growing and spreading, the literature of 
the masses, the newspaper, was making steady progress. 
The first printing-press in this country was set up at Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. Compared with the power- 
presses of to-day it was an extraordinarily rude and slow- 
moving affair. No newspaper press was needed until 1704, 
when the Boston News Letter, the first weekly ever regularly 
published in this country, appeared.^ 

Other papers were afterward started in Boston, one, the 
New Eyigland Courant, by the brother of Benjamin Franklin, 
on which that famous author and statesman learned the 
printer's art. Coming to Philadelphia in 1723, he found 
there a paper, the American Weekly Mercurie, established 
in 1719. In 1729 the Pennsylvania Gazette was founded. 
This Franklin quickly purchased, and continued to issue 
until 1748. It was published afterward until about 1820. 

Newspaper Progress. — In 1750 there were only seven 
newspapers in the colonies. These at the time of the 
Revolution had increased to thirty-seven, of which New 
England published fourteen. New York four, Pennsylvania 
nine, and the South ten. But these small sheets, issued 
weekly, with little news and few advertisements, and their 
information from Europe several weeks old, were but dwarf- 
ish predecessors of the giant daily newspapers of to-day. 

The first daily paper, Tlie American Daily Advertiser^ 



^ The first attempt to issue a newspaper in America was made in 
Boston in 1689, and a second {Publick Occurrences) in 1690 ; but both 
were immediately suppressed by the authorities. Only one copy of the 
first and two of the second of these pa,.ers are known to exist. 



544 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

appeared in Philadelphia in 1784. Since then there has 
been a remarkable progress in newspaper enterprise in this 
country, far surpassing that of Great Britain and any other 
land. The first one-cent daily, the New York Daily Sun^ 
appeared in 1833. This was a small sheet compared with 
the many-paged one-cent papers now issued. There are 
at present published in this country more than twenty 
thousand newspapers, while the whole world only pub- 
lishes about fifty thousand. They deal with every subject, 
commerce, science, industry, society, art, religion, etc., 
while their circulation has become enormously great. 

Magazines. — Magazine literature began in this country in 
the later years of the eighteenth century, though the pro- 
ductions of that period have long since ceased to be read. 
The oldest existing American magazine is the North Ameri- 
can Review, first issued in 1815. The existing magazines 
of this country are of great excellence, particularly in their 
illustrations, in which they have no equals in the world. 
Some of these richly illustrated American monthlies have 
a circulation in all parts of the British empire. 

Science. — The cultivation of science began in the colonial 
period. American astronomy began with Rittenhouse, a 
friend of Washington, and Godfrey, the inventor of the 
quadrant, so useful to mariners. More famous was Frank- 
lin, whose electrical discoveries became the admiration of 
Europe. In botany the two Bartrams (father and son) w^on 
wide-spread fame. Somewhat later appeared Audubon, 
whose studies of bird-life read like a romance. Of more 
recent students of science in this country may be named 
Agassiz, the famous zoologist ; Dana, the geologist ; Grey, 
the botanist ; Morton, the discoverer of anaesthetics ; Thomp- 
son, to whom we owe the theory that heat is a mode of 
motion ; Draper, the student of photography ; and Henry, 



LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 545 

the electrician. This is but a partial list, while the names 
of more recent scientists of high ability are too numerous 
to be here given. To-day the United States stands among 
the leading countries in the pursuit of science. 

Museums and Scientific Institutions. — The earliest sci- 
entific body in this country was the American Philosophical 
Society, instituted at Philadelphia a century and a half ago. 
The earliest museum was the Academy of Natural Sciences 
of Philadelphia, organized in 1812. Such societies and 
museums are now very numerous and many of them of 
high standing. In the making of telescope lenses American 
opticians are the first in the world. 

Libraries. — Public libraries began in this country with 
the Philadelphia Library, founded by Frankhn in the middle 
of the eighteenth century. Libraries are now found every- 
where, several of them very large, while free libraries are 
rapidly multiplying. The largest is the Library of Congress, 
whose number of books is rapidly approaching a million. 
The Boston Public Library, with nearly six hundred thou- 
sand volumes, comes next. Others of large size exist in 
various cities. Of private libraries the oldest is that of Har- 
vard University, which began in 1638. It now contains 
more than three hundred thousand volumes. 

Art. — The eighteenth century produced several painters 
of note in this country, of whom the best known were West, 
Copley, Stuart, Allston, and Trumbull. Later appeared 
Cole, Huntington, Church, Bierstadt, and others, including 
Morse, the inventor of the electric telegraph. Of famous 
sculptors may be named Greenough, Crawford, Powers, 
Rogers, and Story. In recent times, and particularly since 
the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, with its useful 
lessons in industrial art, this country has greatly advanced 
in artistic taste and feeling. Of art museums the Pennsyl- 



546 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

vania Academy of the Fine Arts, at Philadelphia, stands as 
the pioneer. Many other academies and schools have suc- 
ceeded, while industrial art is being taught in numbers of 
institutions. 

lo. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 

What Education Includes. — The word " education" has 
a much wider meaning than is usually given to it. It com- 
prises instruction in two series of events, those of the past 
and of the present. The former must be mainly derived 
from books, since it only exists as a record of man's doings. 
The latter is largely gained by observation, and is derived 
from association with mankind, and the study of methods 
of business, industry, etc. But when we speak of educa- 
tion, we usually mean that which is obtained in schools, 
through the aid of books and teachers. The other is known 
as life experience, and is the practical education which 
every living person gains in some measure, even those who 
are destitute of book-learning. 

The Puritan Schools. — The necessity of general educa- 
tion was quickly felt in Massachusetts, and as early as 1635 
steps were taken to establish a public school in Boston. The 
other towns of the colony soon followed this example, and 
in 1647 the General Court of Massachusetts passed an act 
requiring every town to establish a free school. If there 
were a hundred families a grammar school was demanded. 
Penalties were laid on every town that did not comply with 
this requirement. 

In this action was laid the foundation of the common- 
school system of this country. The other colonies of New 
England proved as active in this direction as Massachusetts. 
A public school was started at New Haven in three years 
and at Newport in two years after their settlement. Every 



EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 547 

town in Connecticut was required to keep a school open 
for three months in the year, under penalty of fine. Laws 
were passed in every colony but Plymouth compelling every 
child to attend school. How these laws worked we do not 
know. There are such laws to-day, but they do not work 
very well. 

Education in Virginia. — An attempt was made to estab- 
lish schools in Virginia at an early date, but education in 
that colony was afterward much neglected. In 1671 Sir 
William Berkeley wrote, " I thank God there are no free 
schools nor printing ; and I hope we shall not have, these 
hundred years, God keep us from both." Fortunately his 
wish did not bear fruit. A free school was endowed five 
years afterward. Yet education remained very backward 
in the Southern colonies. Even the children of the wealthy 
planters found no suitable schools, and were chiefly edu- 
cated by tutors at home or were sent to school in England. 

Schools in Other Colonies. — An act was passed in Mary- 
land in 1694 for the establishment of free schools, but the 
first school under it did not appear till 1723. A free school 
was founded at Charleston in 1712. A school was opened 
by the Dutch in New Amsterdam in 1633, but the cause of 
education advanced very slowly, falling off under the Eng- 
lish, and it was not until 1732 that a school of Latin, Greek, 
and mathematics was founded. The Quakers of Pennsyl- 
vania were more active in preparing for education. A 
school was opened in Philadelphia in the year of its set- 
tlement, and in the sixth year a free academy was founded. 
There were many successful private schools in the middle 
colonies, but little of the public money was spent for edu- 
cation. 

Higher Education. — Schools preparatory to college were 
founded in several colonies, and three of these of very 



548 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

early establishment still exist. These are the Boston Latin 
School, founded in 1635, the Collegiate School, at New 
York, in 1633, and the William Penn Charter School, at 
Philadelphia, in 1689. 

Harvard College. — In 1636, six years after Boston was 
settled, the General Court voted a year's tax of the colony, 
four hundred pounds, for the establishment of a seminary 
or college at Newtown, — afterward called Cambridge. Two 
years later the Rev. John Harvard, of Charlestown, left to 
this school his library of three hundred and twenty volumes 
and seven hundred and fifty pounds in money. In recog- 
nition of this gift the institution was named Harvard Col- 
lege. It is now the flourishing Harvard University. So 
great was the interest felt in this college that in 1645 every 
family in the colony gave it either a peck of corn or a shil- 
ling in money. 

Yale College. — Similar action was taken in Connecticut. 
In 1700 two ministers brought together such books as they 
could spare, saying, " I give these books for founding a 
college in Connecticut." In this humble way Yale College 
began. It was founded in 1701, at Saybrook, but removed 
to New Haven, where it still remains, in 1716. It was 
named after Governor Yale, who had been generous in its 
aid. 

William and Mary College. — There was a school founded 
at Elizabeth City, Virginia, four years before Harvard Col- 
lege, it being endowed with two hundred acres of land and 
eight cows. In 1693 there was founded at Williamsburg, 
the capital of Virginia, William and Mary College, the sec- 
ond in this country. This college, before the Revolution the 
richest in the country, has much declined in imi)ortance. 

Other Colleges. — The other pre-Revolutionary colleges 
were founded at the following dates: Princeton, 1746; 



EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 549 

King's (now Columbia), 1754; Pennsylvania, 1755; Brown, 
1764; Dartmouth, 1769; and Rutgers, 1770. 

Conditions of Early Education. — The free schools of 
colonial times, and until long afterward, gave but poor and 
sparse education. The schools were few and far apart, the 
teachers and text-books were indifferent, and the instruc- 
tion was rudimentary. The only reading-books in early 
times were the Bible, the Psalter, and the New England 
Speller. After the Revolution the Columbian Orator be- 
came very popular and Webster's Spelling-Book was widely 
used. The grammars and arithmetics were crude produc- 
tions. Writing-books were generally home-made, and ruled 
by the pupil with lead-pencils made by himself. The 
boys also whittled out their own slate-pencils, while the 
teacher made the pens out of goose-quills. The use of the 
penknife, and of the switch on the backs of the pupils, took 
much of his time. The teacher was paid partly by the 
town, partly by the scholars, receiving from one hundred 
and twenty-five to three hundred dollars a year in money 
and produce. 

General Establishment of Common Schools. — The con- 
stitutions of Georgia in 1777, Massachusetts in 1780, Penn- 
sylvania in 1790, and Connecticut in 1795, required free 
schools, but these requirements were often evaded. In 
New York common schools were established by Governor 
Clinton in 1795. An important step in the development of 
education was taken in the ordinance for the government 
of the Northwestern Territory in 1785, This required that 
section sixteen of every township should be set aside to 
maintain public schools. 

School Funds. — When Connecticut donated her western 
territory to the United States, a portion was reserved on 
Lake Erie to provide a school fund. This, the " Western 



550 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Reserve," was afterward sold for more than one million 
dollars, and from its proceeds Connertirnt has now a school 
endowment of abont two million dollars. 

In 1848, when Oregon Territory was organized, sections 
sixteen and thirty-six of every township were set aside for 
public schools. Every new State since has taken similar 
action with its public lands, and each has a large school 
fund. Other lands have been given, and in all about eighty 
million acres of land have been thus devoted. In 1862 
Congress donated thirty thousand acres of public lands 
for every Senator and Representative in Congress for the 
purpose of maintaining an agricultural college in each State. 

Slow Growth of the School System, — With all that was 
done, the common school system advanced but slowly out- 
side of New England, and until 1830 private academies 
prospered. Progress was particularly slow in the South, 
there being before the Civil War only four States south of 
Mason and Dixon's line with a public school system. Since 
the war free schools have multiplied in the South, and 
much has been done for the education of the former slaves. 

Normal Schools. — The first normal schools, for the 
education of teachers, were founded in Massachusetts in 
1839. Schools of this kind now exist in nearly every State. 
Everywhere the common schools have risen greatly in 
grade, and with the aid of the high schools, and the public 
colleges which some of the States have founded, an excel- 
lent education can now be obtained at the public expense. 

Recent Progress in Education. — During the nineteenth 
century immense })rogross was made in provision for the 
higher education. Colleges and universities are now widely 
distributed, many of them richly endowed by contributions 
from wealthy citizens ; colleges for the higher education of 
women have been founded ; technical and scientific schools 



THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 551 

have arisen widely, and excellent facilities for a liberal edu- 
cation now exist. In the improvement of text-books and 
other requirements for the attainment of knowledge equal 
progress has been made, while the recent adoption of object 
teaching in place of the memory teaching of the past has 
rendered the acquirement of knowledge an easy and pleas- 
ant process, in place of the slow and painful methods with 
which our forefathers gained their education. 

II. THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 

The New South. — The period since the close of the Civil 
War has been marked by a change in the conditions of the 
South that is almost revolutionary in character. Here, 
where formerly almost the sole mercantile products were 
cotton, tobacco, and naval stores (tar, turpentine, etc.), to- 
day there is a highly diversified industry and promise of 
great future prosperity. Agriculture is still the leading 
pursuit, but it has greatly widened in scope ; iron, coal, and 
phosphate rock are largely mined, cotton- and iron-mills 
have become numerous, and an immense lumber industry 
has been developed. 
The railroad mile- 
age is five times as 
great as in 1860, and 
in almost every re- 
spect marked prog- 
ress has been made. 
Despite this diversity 
of interests the cot- an irrigation canal. 

ton crop has more than doubled since I860, and the cotton- 
seed, which was once thrown away, now yields large quan- 
tities of valuable oil. 




552 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

The New "West. — The West has been settled with phe- 
nomenal rapidity and become immensely productive. Its 
two great industries are agriculture and mining, but these 
have been remarkably developed. Five of the Western States 
yield more than half the vast corn crop of the United States, 
and six States nearly half the wheat. The gold and silver 
product is unequalled in any other part of the world, while 
copper, iron, and various other minerals are largely pro- 
duced. In addition to these sources of prosperity, nature 
has provided vast areas of timber, and grazing for mighty 
herds of cattle and sheep, while the production of semi- 
tropical fruits in California forms a great and increasing 
source of wealth. 

Progress in the North. — While the South and West have 
been thus progressing, the North has moved on unceasingly 
in the lines already indicated, and has manifested, particu- 
larly in manufactures and commerce, a remarkable activity 
and enterprise. Railroads have reached almost every ham- 
let in the land, telegraphic wires cover the country like a net- 
work, the development of coal, iron, copper, and other mines 
has been equally great, while a new mining industry, that 
of petroleum, has proved a vast source of wealth and utility. 

Petroleum and Natural Gas. — The first petroleum wells 
were sunk in Western Pennsylvania before the Civil War. 
Speculation aided their development, and the rock-oil pro- 
duced is now sent to all parts of the world. From the 
wells sunk for oil a natural gas sometimes flowed out in 
great quantities. In 1884 gas from some of these wells was 
carried by long pipes to Pittsburg, where it was burned to 
give light to houses and heat to factories. Petroleum has 
been found in several other States, California and Oklahoma 
being now the greatest producers. The annual product of 
the United States in 1915 was 290,UUU,(X)U barrels. 



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THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 553 

Inventions. — The immense progress which the United 
States has made in almost all directions within a century 
has been greatly aided by the inventive genius of the people, 
whose ability in this direction no other country equals. 
Since the formation of the United States more than a mil- 
lion patents have been issued for new inventions and de- 
signs, about 940,000 of them since 1871, and patents are 
now being issued at the rate of nearly forty thousand yearly. 

Many of these are of slight importance, but others have 
proved of the utmost utility. The cotton-gin, the steam- 
boat, and the telegraph have been mentioned. They include 
also the reaping-machine, the sewing-machine, the vulcan- 
izing of rubber, the cyhnder printing-press, the electric 
light, the trolley car, the telephone, the phonograph, the 
type-writer and type-setter, and others too numerous to 
mention. American activity in this direction has done more 
for the comfort and prosperity of mankind within a century 
than was achieved by all the progress of many preceding 
centuries. 

Change made by Inventions. — Within the lifetime of 
persons now living more inventions of leading importance 
have been made than perhaps in all the ages before, and in 
this field of progress the United States has taken the lead. 
Our forefathers had only the horse and the boat for travel 
and conveyance of freight. Steam has changed all this, and 
we can go round the world to-day in less time than it took 
to sail from England to America a century ago. In those 
days rock-oil, gas, and the electric light were unknown, 
stoves were little used, cloth was woven and dyed by hand, 
and a variety of articles that are now made rapidly and 
cheaply by machinery were produced slowly by hand, or 
were entirely unknown. As an example, wood, coal, gas, 
steam, and hot air have been used successively for heating 



554 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

our houses, and electricity is now coming into use for this 
purpose, and may in time furnish the world's heat-supply. 

Amusements. — The comfort of our people has not alone 
been considered. The art of entertainment has also greatly 
advanced. The theatre has developed until now plays are 
presented with a richness and naturalness of effect that 
would have astounded our ancestors, while operatic enter- 
tainments and music in general have been similarly devel- 
oped. Of the extension of galleries of art and museums of 
science we have already spoken. Out-door exercise has also 
much advanced, and the college and other games of to-day 
attract thousands of interested spectators. 

Parks. — A more widely enjoyed opportunity for health- 
ful and pleasurable out-door exercise is furnished by the 
charming parks and public gardens w^hich have been added 
to nearly all our cities, and which furnish recreation and 
delight to millions of our people. In addition to these, parks 
for public enjoyment, furnished with ample provision for 
popular amusement, are being founded by railway and steam- 
boat lines in the vicinity of the large cities. 

Architecture. — Not least among the advances of the time 
is that which has been made in architecture. The log cabin 
and the rude frame house of the colonies are now to be 
found only in the most undeveloped regions, while in the 
cities palatial mansions and business houses are rising by 
hundreds, in which great attention is paid to architectural 
beauty and effect. A late development in this direction is 
the great apartment or business house, reaching for many 
stories into the air, and a hive of human life. These lofty 
edifices are the outgrowth of the invention of the elevator, 
which alone has rendered them possible. 

Temperance. — Among the promising steps of progress of 
recent times, none are more so than the development of the 



THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 555 

temperance sentiment. Up to 1825 intoxication was so 
common a vice in this country as scarcely to attract notice. 
All classes of the community drank freely, and eVen clergy- 
men did not hesitate to follow the bad example. In 1825 
the first temperance society was formed, and in the suc- 
ceeding years a wave of temperance sentiment swept over 
llie land. Today this has lost its crusading character, but 
drunkenness is no longer respectable, and a large portion of 
the population look upon it as a degrading vice. Nearly all 
the States have passed laws which require school-children to 
be taught the necessity and advantage of temperance and the 
movement hi favor of temperance has led to a constitutional 
amendment prohibiting the use of intoxicating liquors. 

Public Benevolence. — Within late times the spirit of 
kindness and benevolence has greatly developed in this 
country. The cruel punishments of past centuries have 
come to an end through the awakened sympathy of the 
people, and this spirit of kindly care has been extended to 
include animals, for whose comfort few people cared in the 
past. Charitable institutions have everywhere arisen, and 
every year millions of dollars are given by the benevolent 
for the care of the afflicted and helpless. Great sums have 
also been given to endow colleges and universities, and this 
sentiment of benevolence and public spirit is growing with 
the greatest rapidity. Its results must be of immense bene- 
fit to mankind. 

Extension of Territory. — Since this country gained its 
freedom from Great Britain its territory has very greatly 
increased. By the treaty of 1783 it acquired a territory of 
over 827,000 square miles, extending from the Atlantic to 
the Mississippi. The subsequent accessions of territory 
were as follows : In 1803 the purchase of Louisiana added 
about 920,000 square miles, more than doubling our terri- 

36 



556 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

tory. The purchase of Florida in 1819 added 59,268, and 
the annexation of Texas in 1845 376,133 square miles. 
In 1846 a treaty with Great Britain gave us Oregon, con- 
taining about 255,000 square miles ; and as a result of 
the war with Mexico there were purchased New Mexico 
and California, embracing 545,783 square miles. In 1853 
another portion of territory, the Gadsden Purchase, was 
bought from Mexico, embracing 45,535 square miles. A 
later acquisition was that of Alaska, purchased from Russia 
in 1867, and containing about 577,000 square miles. In 
1898 the Hawaiian Islands, in the central Pacific Ocean, 
of 6740 square miles area, were acquired by annexation, 
and the island of Porto Rico, in the West Indies, of 3668 
square miles, was gained by conquest from Spain, The 
war with Spain also yielded the Philippine Islands^ of 
115,000 square miles, in the eastern Pacific, which were 
acquired through the treaty with Spain ratified by Con- 
gress in February, 1899. The United States also possesses 
Tutuila, Guam, and other small islands in the Pacific, and 
has an area of about 8,725,000 square miles. 

This area is about equal to that of all Europe, and more 
than half that of South America. There are twenty-four 
of our States each of which is larger than England. 

Natural Conditions of Progress. — Tliis vast area, inhab- 
ited by more than a hundred million people gathered from 
all the civilized and many of the uncivilized nations of the 
earth, has unequalled natural advantages. Its soil is capa- 
ble of supplying abundant food for a much larger popula- 
tion, while its mines of varied products and its immense 
forests are rich reservoirs of wealth. 

No other territory of equal extent is more abundantly 
supplied by nature with navigable waters, including the Mis- 
sissippi and its aflluents in the vast interior and the Great 



THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 557 

Lakes on the north. The Falls of Niagara and the rapid 
descent of many of the smaller streams yield water-power 
of enormous extent. This power is being utilized for the 
production of electricity, and in time may replace the greater 
part of the working force which is now derived from coal. 

The Future of the Republic. — This great republic of the 
West has undoubtedly before it a grand future. For more 
than a century it has served as an object-lesson to the 
nations of Europe, teaching them the blessings of political 
freedom, the advantages of free education, and other lessons 
of great importance. Its mission as a teacher of new ideas 
and new methods will continue, as its own institutions 
develop and new methods of pubUc administration, indus- 
try, and education unfold, and for a long period to come it 
may serve as an example of political, social, and industrial 
evolution to the world. There are many important prob- 
lems still to be solved before it can reach the goal toward 
which it is moving. What the United States of the far 
future will be no one to-day can predict. But we can 
scarcely doubt that it will continue to occupy one of the 
foremost places among the nations of the earth. 



THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT. 

In the name of God, Amen ; We whose names are under-written, 
the loyall subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord King James, by ye 
grace of God of Great Britaine, France and Ireland, King, defender of 
ye faith, &c., haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God and advance- 
mente of ye Christian faith, and honour of our King and countrie, a 
voyage to plant the first colonic in ye Northerne parts of Virginia, doe 
by these presents solemnly and mutually in ye presence of God, and 
one of another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil! 
body politick, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance 
of ye ends aforesaid ; and by vertue hereof to enact, constitute and 
frame such just and equall lawes, ordinances, acts, constitutions and 
offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meete and conve- 
nient for ye generall good of ye colonie, unto which we promise all 
due submission and obedience. In witnesse whereof we have here- 
under subscribed our names, Cape Cod 11 of November, in the yeare of 
the raigne of our soveraigne Lord King James of England, France and 
Ireland 18, and of Scotland 54. Anno Domini, 1620. 



658 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. 



A. Declaration by the Representatives of the United States uf 
America, in Congress assembled. 

When, in the course <if human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate 
and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God 
entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that 
they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, 
whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, 
it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a 
new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organ- 
izing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to 
effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
governments long established should not be changed for light and 
transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown, that 
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than 
to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus- 
tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing 
invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under 
absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such 
government, and to provide new guards for their future security. 
Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is 
now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems 
of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a 
'listory of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object 

559 



500 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these Stales. To prove 
this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and press- 
ing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent 
should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature ; a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 
fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for 
the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; 
the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of 
invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for 
that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent 
to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, foi the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms 
of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without 
the consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent 
to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 561 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States : 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury : 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences : 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves in- 
vested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protec- 
tion and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled 
in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civil- 
ized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- 
ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian 
savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruc- 
tion of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, in 
the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by 
every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free 
people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature 
to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded 
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We 
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have 



562 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these 
usurpations, whicli would inevitably interrupt our connections and 
correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and 
consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which 
denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man- 
kind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in 
general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the 
authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare. That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 
and independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to 
the British crown, and that all political connection between them and 
the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and 
that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, 
conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all 
other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And, 
for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the pro- 
tection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our 
lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

John Hancock. 



Ne"W Hampshire. — Jostah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew 
Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat 
Paine, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island. — Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Wil- 
liams, Oliver Wolcott. 

Ne^w York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 

Ne-w Jersey. — Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hop- 
KiNsoN, John Hart, Abraham Clark. 

Pennsylvania. — Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Frank- 
lin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James 
Wilson, George Ross. 

Dela"ware. — Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean. 

Maryland. — Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles 
Carroll, of Carrollton. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 563 

Virginia. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter 
Braxton. 

North Carolina. — William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. 

South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Thomas 
Lynch, Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia. — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
CoNSTiTi/TioN for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

Section I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Section II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, 
and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite 
for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained 
to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of th< 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of 

hat State in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such a manner as they shall by 
law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for 
every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Repre- 
sentative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New 
Hampshire shall be entitled to choose 3; Massachusetts, 8 ; Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations, 1 ; Connecticut, 5 ; New York, 6 ; 
New Jersey, 4 ; Pennsylvania, 8; Delaware, 1 ; Maryland, 6; Virginia, 
10; North Carolina, 5; South Carolina, 5, and Georgia, 3.' 



> See Article XIV., Amendmente. 
564 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 565 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at 
the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration 
of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth 
year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacan- 
cies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the 
Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary 
appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall 
then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for 
which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President 
pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall 
exercise the office of President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried the Chief Justice shall 
preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of 
two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office 
of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party con- 
victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Section IV. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections 
for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress n;ay at any time by law make 



566 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

or altor such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Sen- 
ators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday of December, unless they shall by 
law appoint a ditlerent day. 

Section V. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, re- 
turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each 
shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may 
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attend- 
ance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as 
each House may provide. 

2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish 
its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- 
thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- 
ment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either 
House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, 
be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a 
compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out 
of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest dur- 
ing their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in 
going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in 
either House they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person 
holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either 
House during his continuance in office. 

Section VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
amendments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the Pres- 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 567 

ident of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not 
he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall 
have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, 
and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds 
of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together 
with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be 
reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House it shall 
become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall 
be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting 
for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House 
respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within 
ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, 
the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it 
shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the 
United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
by him, or, being disapproved by him, snail be repassed by two-thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and 
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Section VIII. The Congress shall have power : 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the 
debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the 
United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform 
throughout the United States ; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the sev- 
eral States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws 
on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States ; 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing 
for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive rights to their 
respective writings and discoveries ; 



5()8 THE ^CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offences against the law of nations ; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to 
that use shall be for a Icnger term than two years ; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy ; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces ; 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service 
of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appoint- 
ment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according 
to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of 
particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of 
the Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over 
all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, 
dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; and 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- 
ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any 
department or officer thereof. 

Section IX. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall he passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor- 
tion to the censTis or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 569 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall ves- 
sels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties 
in another. 

7. No money shall be dravi^n from the Treasury but in consequence 
of apprdpriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account 
of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published 
from time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without 
the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, 
or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

Section X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit 
bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in 
payme.H of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law 
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any im- 
post or ducies on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely 
necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all 
duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be 
for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such laws 
shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duly of 
tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or 
engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

Section I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term 
of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the 
same term, be elected as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Sena- 
tors and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the 
Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an 
office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an 
elector. 



570 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

3. [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant 
of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all 
the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each, which list 
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the Gov- 
ernment of the United States, directed to the President of thft Senate. 
The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall 
then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes 
shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who 
have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the 
House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of 
them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the 
five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the 
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum 
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds 
of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person 
having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice- 
President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal 
votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] ' 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, 
and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be 
the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of 
the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the 
Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resigna- 
tion, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring 
what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accord- 
ingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

> This clause is superseded by Article XII., Amendmenta. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 571 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
ecmpensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 
the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and 
will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Con- 
stitution of the United States." 

Section II. 1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he 
may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of 
the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of 
their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves 
and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases 
of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present 
concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the 
United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided 
for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by 
law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper 
in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of depart- 
ments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section III. He shall from time to time give to the Congress infor- 
mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration 
such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on 
extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and, 
in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of ad- 
journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; 
he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take 
care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the 

officers of the United States. 

37 



572 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Section IV. The President, Vice-President, and all civil ofHcers of 
the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, 
and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misde* 
meanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

Section I. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of 
the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good 
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a com- 
pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in 
office. 

Section II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law 
and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to 
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; 
to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies 
to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies be- 
tween two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another 
State ; between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the 
same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and be- 
tween a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or 
subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before men- 
tioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to 
law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the 
Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be 
by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said 
crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within 
any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may 
by law have directed. 

Section III. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving 
them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless 
on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confes- 
sion in open court. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 573 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of trea- 
son, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or for- 
feiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. 
And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which 
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 
thereof. 

Section II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction 
of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or reg- 
ulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
be due. 

Section III. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the junc- 
tion of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of 
the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the Con- 
gress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all need- 
ful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property be- 
longing to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be 
so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any 
particular State. 

Section IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of 
them against invasion ; and, on application of the Legislature, or of 
the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against 
domestic violence. 



574 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

ARTICLE V. 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem if, 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, 
shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either 
case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con- 
stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the 
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one 
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress : 
Provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year 
one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect 
the first and fourth clauses of the ninth section of the first article ; 
and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the 
adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall 
be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, 
anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not- 
withstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
cial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall 
be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no 
religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or 
public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient ' 
for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratify- 
ing the same. 

Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, 
the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thou- 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 575 



sand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have 
hereunto subscribed our names. 

(teorge Washington, 
President, and Deputy from Virginia. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

John Langdon, 
Nicholas Gilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel Gorham, 
Rufus King. 

CONNECTICUT. 

William Samuel Johnson, 
Roger Sherman. 

NEW YORK. 

Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY. 

William Livingston, 
David Brearley, 
William Paterson, 
Jonathan Dayton. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robert Morris, 
George Clymer, 
Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll,' 
James Wilson, 
Grouverneur Morris. 



Attest , 



DELAWARE. 

George Reed, 
Gunning Bedford, 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jacob Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James McHenry, 

Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, 

Daniel Carroll. 

VIRGINIA. 

John Blair, 
James Madison. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

William Blount, 
Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

John Rutledge, 
Charles C. Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 

GEORGIA. 

William Few, 
Abraham Baldwin. 
William Jackson, Secretary 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 

ARTICLE I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assem- 
ble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE n. 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. 

ARTICLE IIL 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without 
the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except 
in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in 
actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person 
be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use 
without just compensation. 
57ti 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 577 

ARTICLE VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall 
have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the 
nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his 
favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the 
United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI. 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of snother State, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign State. 

ARTICLE XII. 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by baliol 
for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be 
an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in 



578 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots 
the person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for 
as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which list they 
shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the Govern- 
ment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The 
President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House 
of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for Presi- 
dent shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, 
then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding 
three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Repre- 
sentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the repre- 
sentation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose 
shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, 
and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And 
if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever 
the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of 
March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, 
as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the 
President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- 
President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of 
the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a ma- 
jority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of 
two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the 
whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person consti- 
tutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that 
of Vice-President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII. 

1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish- 
ment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdic- 
tion. 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 579 

ARTICLE XIV. 

1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject 
to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United Stales and of the 
State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the 
right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and 
Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the 
executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legis- 
lature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, 
being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or 
in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other 
crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the propor- 
tion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or 
elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or 
military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having 
previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of 
the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an 
executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of 
the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against 
the same, or given aid and comfort to the enemies thereof. But Con- 
gress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. 

4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by 
law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for 
services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- 
tioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
igainst the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of 
any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held 
illegal and void. 

5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legisla- 
tion, the provisions of this article. 



580 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

ARTICLE XY. 

1. Therightof citizens of the United States to vote shall not he denied 
or ahridged hy the United States or hy any Slate on account of race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude. 

2. The Congress shall have power to on force the provisions of this 
article hy appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI. 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the 
several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII. 

The Senate of the United States shall l)e composed of two Senators 
from each State, elected hy the people thereof, for six years; and each 
Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the 
qualitications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of 
the State Legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the 
Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of elec- 
tion to fdl such vacancies : Provided, That the Legislature of any State 
may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments un- 
til the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. 

[This Article replaces the provision in Article I, Section III, of the 
Constitplion for the choosing of Senators by the Legislatures.] 

RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in the 
following order : 

Delaware, December 7, 1787 ; Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787 ; 
New Jersey, December 18, 1787; Georgia, January 2, 1788 ; Connecticut, 
January 9, 1788; Massachusetts, February 6, 1788; Maryland, April 28, 
1788 ; South Carolina, May 23, 1788 ; New Hampshire, June 21, 1788; 
Virginia, June 25, 1788; New York, July 26, 1788; North Carolina, 
November 21, 1789 ; Rhode Island, May 29, 1790. 

RATIFICATION OF THE AMENDMENTS. 
I. to X. inclusive were declared in force Deceml)er 15, 1791 ; XI. was 
declared in force January 8, 1798 ; XII. was declared in force Septem- 
ber 25, 18(»4 ; XIII. was proclaimed December 18, 1865 ; XIV. was pro- 
claimed July 28, 1868 ; XV. was proclaimed Mar'-h 30, 1870 : XVI. was 
proclaimed February 25, 1913 ; XVII. was proclaimed May 30, 1913. 



Table of States and Ikrritories. 



Nasle. 



Delaware . . 
Pennsylvania 
New Jersey . . 
Georgia . . . 
Connecticut . 
Massachusetts 
Maryland . . 



South Carolina . 
New Hampshire 
Virginia .... 
New York . . . 
North Carolina . 
Rhode Island . 



Vermont . 
Kentucky 

Tennessee 
Ohio . . . 
Louisiana 
Indiana . 
Mississippi 
Illinois . . 



Alabama . 
Maine . . 
Missouri . 
Arkansas. 
Michigan 
Florida. . 
Texas . . 



Iowa . . . 
Wisconsin 



California . . 
Minnesota . . 
Oregon .... 
Kansas .... 
West Virginia 
Nevada . . . 
Nebraska . . 
Colorado . . . 
North Dakota 
South Dakota 
Montana . . . 
Washington . 
Idaho . . . . 
Wyoming . . 



45 I Utah 



Origin of Name. 



Oklahoma 

New INIexico .... 

Arizona 

District of Columbia 

Alaska 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Philippines .... 



In honor of Lord Delaware . . 

Penn's woodland 

From the Island of Jersey . . 

In honor of George II 

Indian — long river 

Indian— at the great hill . . . 

In honor of Henrietta Maria, 
wife of Charles I 

In honor of Charles II 

From Hampshire, Engla>id . . 

In honor of Queen Elizuoeth . 

In honor of the Duke of York 

In honor of Charles II 

Dutch— Rood (Red) Island, or, 
from the Isle of Rhodes . . . 

French— green mountains . . 

Indian — probably hunting 
land 

Indian— crooked river .... 

Indian — beautiful river. . . . 

In honor of Louis XIV. . . . 

From the word " Indian" . . 

Indian — greatriver 

From name of river and In- 
dian confederacy 

Indian— here we rest 

The main land 

Indian— muddy river 

Indian — after its main river . 

Indian — great sea 

Spanish— flowery 

Indian — name of a tribe or 
confederacy 

Indian — meaning doubtful . . 

Indian— probably gathering 
waters 

Spanish — from an old romance 

Indian — cloudy water .... 

Meaning doubtful 

Indian — meaning doubtful . . 

From Virginia 

Spanish — snowy mountains . 

Indian — shallow water . . . 

Spanish— red or ruddy . . . . 

Indian — the allies ...... 

Indian — the allies 

Spanish — montana, a mountain 

In honor of Washington 

Indian — gem of the mountains 

Indian — broad plains 

Indian — mountain home . . . 

Indian — fine country .... 

From Mexico 

Meaning doubtful 

From Cohimbus 

Indian — great, or main land . 

Given by the Is^atives .... 

Spanish", rich ]iort 

In honor of Philip II .... 



<1 s 



1787 
1787 
1787 
1788 
1788 
1788 

1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1789 

1790 
1791 

1792 
1796 
1803 
1812 
1816 
1817 

1818 
1819 
1820 
1821 
1836 
1837 
1845 

1845 
1846 

1848 
1850 
1858 
1859 
1861 
1863 
1864 
1867 
1876 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1896 
1907 
1912 
1912 



s s 



2,050 
45,215 

7,815 
59,475 

4,990 

S,315 

12,210 
30,570 
9,305 
42,450 
49,170 
62,250 

1,250 
9,565 

40,400 
42,050 
41,060 
48,720 
36,350 
46,810 

56,650 
52,250 
33,040 
69,415 
53,850 
58,915 
58,680 

265,780 
56,025 

56,040 

l.'58,360 
83,365 
96,030 
82,080 
24,780 

110,700 
77,510 

103,925 
70,795 
77,650 

146,080 
(•-9,180 
84.800 
97,890 
84,970 I 
70,430 

122,5,S0 

113,020 
70 

577,390 
6,740 I 
3,604 

115,026 I 



202,322 
7,665,111 
2,537,167 
2,609,121 
1,114,756 
3,366,416 

1,295,346 
1,.515,400 
430,572 
2,061,612 
9,113,279 
2,206,287 

542,610 
355,956 

2,289,905 
2,184,789 
4,767,121 
1,656,388 
2,700,876 
1,797,114 

5,638,591 
2,138,093 

742,371 
3.293.335 
1,574;449 
2,810,173 

751,139 

3,896,542 

2,224,771 

2,333,860 
2,377,549 
2,075,708 
672.765 
1,690,949 

1,221, ur 

81,875 

1,192,214 

799,024 

577,056 

.583,888 

376,053 

1,141,990 

325,,594 

145,965 

373,351 

1,657,155 

327,301 

204,354 

331,069 

64,356 

191,909 

1,223,981 

8,779,999 



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SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY 



874. Iceland settled by the Northmen. 
986. Greenland settled by the Northmen. 
1000. The American continent visited by 

Northmen. 
1492. Columbus discovers America, Octo- 
ber 12. 
1497. The Cabots discover North America. 
1507. The name America is suggested. 
1513. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida. 
1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 
1519-22. Magellan's fleet sails round the 

globe. 
1524. Verrazano explores the North Atlan- 
tic coast. 
1528. Narvaez explores the Gulf region. 
1535. Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence ; 

names Montreal. 
1540-42. Coronado explores the pueblo 
region. 

1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 

1542. Cabrillo explores the California 

coast. 
1562. Huguenots reach America. 
1565. St. Augustine founded ; Huguenots 

massacred. 
1576. Frobisher explores the Arctic region. 
1577-79. Drake sails round the globe. 
1578-83. Gilbert's voyages. 
1582. Santa F6 founded by Espejo. 
1585-87. Raleigh plants colonies on Roan- 
oke Island. 
1602. Gosnold discovers Cape Cod. 
1604. Port Royal, Acadia, settled by the 

French. 

1607. Jamestown settled ; first permanent 

English colony. 

1608. Quebec founded by Chaniplain. 

1609. Lake Champlain discovered. 
1609. Hudson sails up the Hudson River. 
1612. Cultivation of tobacco begins. 
1614. The Dutch take possession of New 

Netherland. 
1619. The first representative assembly 
meets at Jamestown. 



1619. Negro slavery introduced. 

1620. The PUgrims land at Plymouth, De- 

cember 21. 
1620. Mayflower compact signed. 
1023. First settlements in New Netherland. 

1625. Pemaquid Point, Maine, settled. 

1626. New Amsterdam founded. 
1628. The Puritans settle at Salem. 
1630. Boston founded by the Puritans. 

1633. First settlement in Connecticut, at 

Windsor. 

1634. St. Mary's, Maryland, settled. 

1634. Religious liberty granted all Chris- 
tians in Maryland. 

1636. Roger Williams founds Providence, 
Rhode Island. 

1636. Religious liberty granted all persons 
in Rhode Island. 

1636. Harvard College founded. 

1637. The Pequot War. 

1638. New Haven colony founded. 

1638. Delaware settled by Swedes at 

Christiana. 

1639. The Connecticut Constitution (the 

first written one in America). 
1643. The New England Confederacy 

formed. 
1654. The Dutch capture New Sweden. 
1659-61. Quaker persecution in Massachu- 
setts. 

1663. Settlement in North Carolina. 

1664. New Jersey settled at Elizabethtown. 

1664. New Netherland seized by the Eng- 
lish ; New Amsterdam renamed 
New York. 

1668. Sainte Marie, Michigan, settled ]yy 

the French. 

1669. La Salle discovers the Ohio and 

Illinois Rivers. 

1670. South Carolina settled on Ashley 

River. 
1673. Marquette explores the Mississippi 

to Arkansas River. 
1675-76. King Philip's War. 

5«S 



584 



SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 



1676. Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia. 
1680. Charleston, South Carolina, settled. 
1682. La Salle explores the Mississippi. 

1682. William Penn visits America. 

1683. Philadelphia founded. 

1686-89. The Andros tyranny in New Eng- 
land. 
1692. The Salem witchcraft. 

1692. William and Mary College founded 

in Virginia. 

1693. Rice culture begun in South Caro- 

lina. 

1701. Yale College founded. 

1702. Mobile settled by the French. 

1704. The Boston News Letter (first news- 
paper in America). 

1718. New Orleans founded by the French. 

1729. Carolina divided into North and 
South Carolina. 

1729 Baltimore founded. 

1733. (ieorgia settled at Savannah. 

17-11. Indigo culture begun in South Caro- 
lina. 

1745. Louisburg taken by the British. 

1753. Washington's mission to the French 

forts. 

1754. The French and Indian War begins. 
1754 Convention of the colonies at Al- 
bany. 

1755. Braddock's defeat. 

1755. Expulsion of the Acadians. 
17.57. Massacre at Fort William Henry. 
1758. Washington takes Fort Duquesne. 

1758. Louisburg taken. 

1759. Wolfe captures Quebec. 
1763. Treaty of fwace signed. 
1763-64. Pontiac's war. 
1765. The Stamp Act passed. 

1765. The " Stamp Act Congress" meets. 

1766. The Stamp Act repealed. 

1767. Duties laid on tea and other arti- 

cles. 

1768. British troops enter Boston. 
1770. The Boston massacre. 
1773. Tea sent to American ports. 

1773. The Boston "Tea Party," December 

16. 

1774. The port of Boston closed. 

i774. The First Continental Congress meets 
at Philadelphia, Sep)tember 5. 

I.775. Battles of Lexington and Concord, 
April 19 



1775. Ethan Allen takes Ticonderoga, May 
10. 

1775. The Second Continental Congress 
meets, May 10. 

1775. Washington made commander-in- 
chief, June 15. 

1775. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. 

1775. The assault and repulse at Quebec, 

December 31. 

1776. The British evacuate Boston, March 

17. 
1776. The Declaration of Independence, 

July 4. 
1776. Battle of Long Island, August 27. 
1776. Washington retreats across New Jer. 

sey, November 19 to December 8. 

1776. Victory at Trenton, December 26. 

1777. Victory at Princeton, January 3. 
1777. The battle of Oriskany, August 6. 
1777. The battle of Bennington, August 

16. 

1777. The battle of the Brandywine, Sep- 
tember 11. 

1777. The British army occupy Philadel- 
phia, September 26. 

1777. The victory at Saratoga, October 7. 

1777. Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17. 

1777. Washington goes into winter quar- 

ters at Valley Forge, December 11. 

1778. Treaty of Alliance with France, 

February 6. 
1778. Philadelphia evacuated, June 18. 
1778. Battle of Monmouth, June 28. 
1778. Massacre of Wyoming, July 3, 4. 

1778. Savannah taken by the British, De- 

cember 29. 

1779. Wayne captures Stony Point. July 16. 

1779. Paul Jones captures the Serapis, Sep- 

tember 23. 

1780. The British take Charleston. May 12. 
1780. Gates defeated at Camden, August 

16. 
1780. Arnold's treason, September. 

1780. Victory at King's Mountain, Octo- 

lier 7. 

1781. Tile Articles of Confederation 

adopted . 
1781. Greene's campaign in the Carolines. 
17S1. Surrender of Comwallis, October 19, 
178;5 Treaty of peace signed, September 3. 
178;i. New York evacuated, November 25. 
1786. Shays's rebellion in Massachusetts. 



SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 



585 



1787. Constitutional Convention meets at 

Philadelphia, May 25. 
1787. The Constitution adopted and 

signed, September 17. 
1778. The Constitution ratilied, June 21. 

1789. Washington inaugurated President, 

April 30. 

1790. Philadelphia selected as the capital 

for ten years. 

1790. The first census taken. 

1791. Vermont admitted to the Union. 

1791. United States Bank established. 

1792. United States Mint established. 
1792. Second election of Washington. 
1792. Captain Gray discovers the Columbia 

River. 

1792. Kentucky admitted to the Union. 

1793. Whitney invents the cotton-gin. 

1794. The Whiskey Rebellion. 

1794. Wayne defeats the Indians. 

1795. Jay's treaty with Great Britain rati- 

fied. 

1796. Tennessee admitted to the Union. 

1797. John Adams inaugurated. 

1798. Naval war with France. 

1798. The AUen and Sedition Laws. 

1799. Death of Washington, December 14. 

1800. The city of Washington becomes the 

national capital. 

1801. Thomas Jett'erson inaugurated. 
1801. War with Tripoli declared. 
1803. Ohio admitted to the Union. 

1803. The purchase of Louisiana. 

1804. The Lewis and Clark expedition. 
1804. Second election of Jefierson. 

1804. Burr kills Hamilton in a duel. 

1805. The war with Tripoli ends. 
1807. Burr tried for treason. 

1807. Fulton invents the steamboat. 
1807. The Leopard fires into the Chesa- 
peake. 

1807. The Embargo Act passed. 

1808. The slave-trade abolished. 

1809. James Madison inaugurated. 
1809. The Non-Intercourse Act. 

1811. The battle of Tippecanoe. 

1812. Louisiana admitted to the Union. 
1812. War declared against Great Britain, 

June 19. 
1812. Hull surrenders Detroit, August 16. 
1812. The Constitution captures the Guer- 

ri^re, August 19. 



1812. Various other naval victories. 

1812. Madison re-elected President. 

1813. Perry's victory on Lake Erie, Sep- 

tember 10. 

1813. Battle of the Thames, October 5. 

1814. Jackson defeats the Creeks at Toho- 

peka, March 27. 
1814. Battle of Chippewa, July 5. 
1814. Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25. 
1814. Washington captured by the British, 

August 24. 
1814. Battle of Lake Champlain and 

Plattsburg, September 11. 
1814. Hartford Convention, December 15. 

1814. Treaty of Peace signed, December 24. 

1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8. 

1815. War with Algiers. 

1816. A new United States Bank estab- 

lished. 

1816. Indiana admitted to the Union. 

1817. James Monroe inaugurated. 
1817. First Seminole War. 

1817. Mississippi admitted to the Union. 

1818. Illinois admitted to the Union. 

1819. Alabama admitted to the Union. 
1819. The first steamship— the Savannah-v 

crosses the ocean. 

1819. Florida purchased from Spain. 

1820. Re-election of Monroe. 

1820. The Missouri Compromise passed. 

1820. Maine admitted to the Union. 

1821. Missouri admitted to the Union. 

1823. The Monroe doctrine stated. 

1824. Lafayette visits the United States. 

1825. Protective tariff" bill passed. 
1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated. 

1825. The Elrie Canal opened. 

1826. Jeff'erson and Adams die, July 4. 
1826. The temperance reform begins. 

1828. New high tariff" bill passed. 

1829. Andrew Jackson inaugurated. 

1829. Rotation in office instituted. 

1830. First steam railroad, at Baltimore. 

1831. Garrison starts the immediate aboli- 

tion movement. 

1832. Jackson vetoes the United States 

Bank bill. 
1832. Suppression of the Nullification 
movement. 

1832. Jackson re-elected President. 

1833. Compromise tariff" bill passed. 
1833. Chicago founded. 



586 



SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 



1854. Rise of the Whig party. 

1835. The second Seminole War. 

1836. Arkansas admitted to the Union. 

1837. Martin Van Buren inaugurated. 
1837. Severe business depression. 
1837. Michigan admitted to the Union. 
1839. The Mormons settle Nauvoo. 

1839. The American express system be- 

gins. 

1840. The Sub-Treasury system estab- 

lished. 

1840. The Cunard line of ocean steamers 

established. 

1841. William Henry Harrison inaugu- 

rated. 
1841. Death of President Harrison, April 4. 

1841. John Tyler inaugurated, April 6. 

1842. The Dorr Rebellion, Rhode Island. 
1842. The Ashburton treaty signed. 
1842. The anti-rent troubles, New York. 

1844. The first line of telegraph com- 

pleted. 

1845. James K. Polk inaugurated. 

1845. Florida admitted to the Union. 

1846. Bill for the annexation of Texas 

signed. 
1845. The anaesthetic qualities of ether 
discovered. 

1845. Texas admitted to the Union. 

1846. Oregon boundary settled by treaty. 
1846. Iowa admitted to the Union. 
1816. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8. 

1846. War declared against Mexico, May 

13. 
1846. Monterey taken, September 24. 

1846. California and New Mexico con- 

quered. 

1847. Battle of Buena Vista, February 23. 
1847. The city of Mexico taken, Septem- 
ber 14. 

1847. The Mormons emigrate to Utah. 

1848. Treaty of peace signed, February 2. 
1848. Gold discovered in California. 

1848. Wisconsin admitted to the Union. 

1849. Zachary Taylor inaugurated. 

1850. Death of President Taylor, July 9. 
1860. Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 

10. 
1850. California admitted to the Union. 

1850. Passage of Fugitive Slave Law. 

1851. The Maine Prohibition bill passed. 
Ifi53. Franklin Pierce inaugurated. 



1853. 
1854. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1856. 
1857. 
1857. 
1857. 
1858. 
1858. 
1859. 
1859. 
1859. 

1859. 

1860. 
1861. 
1861. 

1861. 

1861. 

1861. 

1861. 

1861. 

1861. 

1861. 

1861. 



1861. 
1861. 



1862. 



1862. 
1862. 



1862. 
1862. 



1862. 
1862. 



World's Fair at New York. 

Perry's treaty with Japan. 

Kansas-Nebraska bill passed. 

The struggle in Kansas begins. 

Assault on Senator Sumner. 

Rise of the Republican party. 

James Buchanan inaugurated. 

The Dred Scott decision. 

Business panic. 

First Atlantic cable (failed). 

Minnesota admitted to the Union. 

Oregon admitted to the Union. 

Discovery of silver in Nevada. 

Discovery of petroleum in Peunsyl- 
lania. 

John Brown's raid on Harper's 
Ferry. 

South Carolina secedes, December 20. 

Abraham Lincoln inaugurated. 

Steamer Star of the West fired upon, 
January 9. 

Kansas admitted to the Union, Jan- 
uary 29. 

Other States secede, January and 
February. 

Southern Confederacy formed, Feb- 
ruary 4. 

Jefferson Davis elected President of 
the Confederacy, February 18 

Bombardment and surrender of Fort 
Sumter, April 12-14. 

The President's call for volunteers, 
April 15. 

Troops attacked at Baltimore, April 
19. 

Secession of Virginia, Arkansas, Ten- 
nessee, and North Carolina (May 
and June). 

Battle of Bull Run, July 21. 

Seizure of Mason and Slidell, No- 
vember 8. 

Capture of Fort Henrj', Tennessee, 
February 6. 

Roanoke Island taken, Fetiruary 8. 

Capture of Fort Donelson, February 
16. 

Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, 
March 7, 8. 

Fight of the Monitor and Merrimac. 
March 9. 

Battle of Shiloh, April 6, 7. 

Capture of Island No. 10, April 7. 



SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 



587 



1862. Capture of New Orleans, April 25. 

1862. Yorktown taken, May 4. 

1862. Battle of Williamsburg, May 5. 

1862. Jackson drives Banks across the 
Potomac, May 26. 

Is62. Corinth, Mississippi, taken, May 30. 

1862. Battle of Fair Oaks, May 31, June 1. 

1862. General Lee succeeds Johnston, June 
3. 

1862. The Seven Days' battles at Rich- 
mond, June 25 to July 1. 

1862. Second battle of Bull Run, August 
29, 30. 

1862. Jackson takes Harper's Ferry, Sep- 
tember 15. 

1862. Battle of Antietam, September 17. 

1862. Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, 
December 13. 

1862. Sherman's repulse at Vicksburg, De- 
cember 29. 

1862. Battle of Murfreesboro', December 

31, January 2, 1863. 

1863. Lincoln's Proclamation of Emanci- 

pation, January 1. 

1863. National banks established, Feb- 
ruary 23. 

1863. Battle of Chancellorsville, May 2, 3. 

1863. West Virginia admitted to the Union , 
June 19. 

1863. Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3. 

186.3. Surrender of Vicksburg, July 4. 

1863. Surrender of Port Hudson, July 9. 

1863. Draft riot in New York, July 13-16. 

1863. Battle of Chickamauga, September 
19,20. 

1863. Battles at Chattanooga, November 
24,25. 

1863. Siege of BJioxville raised, Decem- 

ber 4. 

1864. Grant made lieutenant-general and 

commander-in-chief, March 3. 
1864. Battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 6. 
1864. Battle of Spottsylvania Court-House, 

May 8-12. 
1864. Battle of Cold Harbor, June 3. 
1864. The Kearsarge sinks the Alabama, 

June 19. 
1864. Sherman's advance to Atlanta. May 

to July. 
1864. Early's raid on Washington (July). 
1864. Mine explosion, Petersburg, July 30. 
1864. Farragut in Mobile Bay, August 5. 



1864. 
1864. 

1864. 

1864. 

1864. 
1864. 

1864. 
1864. 

1865. 

1865. 
1865. 

1865. 
1865. 
1865. 
1865. 

1865. 

1865. 

1865. 
1865. 

1865. 
1866. 
1867. 
1867. 
1868. 

1868. 

1868. 

1868. 
1868. 
1869. 
1869. 
1870. 

1870. 
1870. 

1871. 
1872. 
1872. 



Weldon Railroad seized, August 18. 

Sherman captures Atlanta, Septem- 
ber 2. 

Sheridan's campaign against Early, 
September and October. 

Nevada admitted to the Union, Oc- 
tober 31. 

President Lincoln re-elected. 

Sherman's march to the sea, Novem- 
ber 12 to December 21. 

Battle of Nashville, December 15, 16. 

Sherman takes Savannah, Decem- 
ber 21. 

Fort Fisher, North Carolina, taken, 
January 15. 

Sherman marches northward. 

Battle of Five Forks, Virginia, 
April 1. 

Capture of Petersburg, April 2. 

Grant takes Richmond, April 3. 

Lee surrenders his army, April 9. 

President Lincoln assassinated, 
April 14. 

Andrew Johnson inaugurated, April 
15. 

Johnston surrenders his army, April 
26. 

JeflFerson Davis captured. May 10. 

Thirteenth Amendment to the Con- 
stitution. 

Tennessee readmitted to the Union. 

A successful Atlantic cable laid. 

Alaska purchased from Russia. 

Nebraska admitted to the Union. 

President Johnson impeached ; ac- 
quitted on trial. 

Six of the Southern States read- 
mitted. 

Fourteenth Amendment to the Con- 
stitution. 

Treaty with China. 

Proclamation of Amnesty. 

Ulysses S. Grant inaugurated. 

Pacific Railroad completed. 

The remaining Southern States re- 
admitted. 

The Weather Bureau established. 

Fifteenth Amendment to the Con- 
stitution. 

Great fire at Chicago. 

Great fire at Boston. 

Settlement of the Alabama claimB. 



38 



588 



SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 



1873. Severe business depression begins. 

1875. The Whiskey Ring exjiosed. 

1876. The Centennial Exhibition at Phila- 

delphia. 
1876. Colorado admitted to the Union. 

1876. War with the Sioux Indians. 

1877. The Electoral Commission formed. 
1877. Rutherford B. Hayes inaugurated. 

1877. Great railroad strike. 

1878. Yellow fever at the South. 

1878. The Bland Silver bill passed. 

1879. Resumption of specie payments, 

January 1. 
1881. James A. Garfield inaugurated. 
1881. Assassination of President Garfield. 

1881. Chester A. Arthur inaugurated, Sep- 

tember 19. 

1882. Great overflow of the Mississippi. 

1883. Civil Service Reform bill passed. 

1884. New Orleans Cotton Exhibition. 

1885. Qrover Cleveland inaugurated. 

1885. The Washington Monument dedi- 

cated. 

1886. Anarchist riot at Chicago. 

1886. Presidential Succession Act passed. 

1886. Great earthquake at Charleston. 

1887. The Interstate Commerce Act. 
1868. The Chinese Exclusion Act. 
1889. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated. 
1889. Opening of Oklahoma to settlers. 
1889. The Johnstown disaster. 

1889. The Pan-American Congress. 

1889. Four States (North and South Da- 

kota, Montana, and Washington) 
admitted. 

1890. The Sherman Silvei Purchase Act 

passed. 
1890. Idaho and Wyoming admitted. 

1890. The McKinley Tariff adopted. 

1891. The Bering Sea controversy. 

1892. The Homestead riot. 

1893. Great busine.ss depression. 

1893. Grover Cleveland's second inaugura- 
tion. 



1893. The Columbian World's Exhibition 
at Chicago. 

1893. The Sherman Silver bill repealed. 

1894. The Pullman car strike. 

1894. Wilson Tariff" bill adopted. 
1896. Utah admitted to the Union. 
1896. Civil Service Reform extended. 

1896. The Free Silver election contest. 

1897. William McKinley inaugurated. 

1895. Sinking of the Maine and Wttr 

with Spain. 

1898. Cuba set free and Manila taken. 

1899. Cession of Porto Rico and Philip- 

pine Islands to the United States. 

1899. War in the Philippines. 

1901. William McKinley reinaugurated. 

1901. Assassination of President McKin- 
ley. 

1901. Theodore Roosevelt inaugurated. 

1901. The Pan-American Exposition. 

1902. The Cuban Republic established. 

1903. The Panama Canal purcha.sed. 

1903. The Alaska Boundary Arbitration. 

1904. The Louisiana Purchase Exposi- 

tion. 

1905. Theodore Roosevelt reinaugurated. 

1906. The San Francisco Earthquake. 

1907. The Jamestown Exposition. 

1007. Oklahoma admitted to the Union. 

1908. American battleships sail round 

the world. 

1908. Two-cent postage with Great Brit- 

ain and Germany. 

1909. William H. Taft inaugurated. 

1909. Robert E I'eary reaches the North 

Pole. 

1910. Theodore Roosevelt received in 

Europe. 

1911. Dissolution of Standard Oil and 

American Tobacco Companies. 

1912. Arizona and Now Mexico admitted 

to the Union. 

1913. Woodrow Wilson inaugurated. 
1917. War with Germany. 



LIST OF BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. 

The list here given is suggestive only, and may be greatly extended by those who 
nave ready access to libraries. Historical fiction and pwetry may be usefully read In 
connection therewith. 



Abbot's Battle- Fields of '61 ; Blue Jackets 
oj '76; Blue Jackets of '61. 

Adams's History of New England Federal- 
ism. 

American Statesman Series of Biographies. 

Bancroft's History of the United States; 
History of the Formation of the Constitu- 
tion. 

Benton's Thirty Years' View. 

Biographies of American historical char- 
acters. 

Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress. 

Bryant and Gay's Popular History of the 
United States. 

Bryce's American Commonwealth. 

Catlin's North American Indians. 

Champlin's Young Folks' History of the 
War for the Union. 

Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies, and 
other historical works. 

Cooper's Naval History. 

Curtis's Constitutional History of tne United 
States. 

Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate 
Oovernmeni. 

De Tocqueville's Democracy in America. 

Dodge's Bird's-Eye View of Our Civil War. 

Doyle's The Puritan Colonies; Virginia, 
Maryland, and the Carolinas. 

Drake's Indian History for Young Folks. 

Draper's Civil War. 

Eggleston's The Beginners of a Nation. 

Ellis's The Red Man and the Wliite Man. 

Fiske's Discovery of America ; Beginnings 
of New England ; American Revolution ; 
Critical Period of Ainerican History ; and 
American Political Ideas. 

Frothingham's Rise of the Republic of the 
United Stales. 



Franklin's Autobiography. 

Oilman's American People. 

Greeley's American Conflict. 

Greene's Historical View of the American 
Revolution. 

Harper's First Century of the Republic. 

Hart's Epochs of American History; Old 
South Leaflets. 

Higginson's Larger History of the United 
States. 

Hildreth's History of the United States. 

Hinsdale's The Old Northwest. 

Irving's Life of Columbus; Life of Wash- 
ington. 

Johnston's American Politics; United 
States. 

Lalor's Cyclopasdia of United States History. 

Lewis and Clark's Expedition. 

Lodge's English Colonies in America. 

Lossing's Pictorial Field-Book of the Revo- 
lution : War of 1812 ; Civil War. 

McCullough's Men and Measures of Haifa 
Century. 

McMaster's History of the People of the 
United States. 

McPherson's Political History of Recon- 
struction. 

Mead's American History Leaflets. 

Morgan's League of the Iroquois. 

Morris's Half-Hours with American History. 

Nichols's Story of the Great March. 

Nicolay's The Outbreak of Rebellion. 

Palfrey's History of New England. 

Parkman's Pioneers of France in the A'eie 
World, and other works on the history 
of the French in America. 

Parton's Life of Benjamin Franklin; Far 
mous Americans. 

Pollard's Lost Cause. 

5St» 



590 



LIST OF BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. 



Etooserelt's The NavcU War of I81t : Win- 
ning of the West. 

Schouler's History of tlie United States. 

Schuyler's Colonial New York. 

Scribner'8 American History Series. 

Scudder's American Commonwealth 
Series. 

Sparks's Americaji Biography Series. 

Squier and Davis's American Antiquities. 

Stephens's War between the Stales. 

Swin ton's Army of the Potomac; Decisive 
HatUts of the War. 



Thorpe's Government of the People of the 

United Stales. 
Watson's Annals of Philadelphia. 
Watson's Camp-Pires of the Revolution. 
Weise's Discovery of America to the Year 

15S5. 
Williams's Negro Race in America. 
Wilson's State and Federal Governments of 

the United States. 
Winsor's Narrative and Critical Historv of 

America ; Reader's Hand-Book qf iht 

American Revolution, 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What two discoveries of America were made ? How did they differ 
in conditions? What caused the nations of Europe to seek a new 
route to India? What do the years 1000 and 1492 suggest? What 
discovery aided navigation in the fifteenth century? What theories 
were held about the shape of the earth ? What were the results of 
the voyages of Columbus? Was Columbus in any way to blame for 
his ill-treatment ? Who were the first English explorers ? What 
parts of the continent did the Spanish settle? The French? The 
English ? What were the leading purposes of each ? 

Why were the natives named Indians? What relation did the 
Mound-Builders bear to the modern Indians ? What was the character 
of the Indian government? Name the Indian families east of the 
Mississippi. What were the leading characteristics of the Indians ? 
What was the effect of Champlain's attack on the Iroquois? Where 
are the Indians settled now ? How many are there ? 

Name a noted discoverer and discovery of each nation in America. 
Describe an important discovery. Why was the continent named 
America? What events are suggested by the names St. Augustine, 
Jamestown, Quebec? By the names Columbus, John Smith, John 
Winthrop, Miles Standish? Upon what did England rest her claim 
to American territory? What caused the decline in Spanish enter- 
prise ? What region was named Acadia ? What was its original and 
what its later extent? Why did Raleigh's colonies prove failures? 
Why Popham's? What was the purpose of Frobisher? Of Hudson? 
Why was it important to find a new route to Asia? By whom was it 
learned that America is a separate continent? How? 

Has a northwest passage to Asia ever been discovered? Is it of any 
use to commerce? Where may geographical discovery still be sought? 
Is the discovery of America yet complete ? How did the Spanish treat 
the Indians? How the English and French? Why did Menende?. 
treat the French colonists so cruelly ? What historical events gather 
about the site of Ticonderoga? 

What do you know about the American fisheries ? What fish and 
3ther animals are sought? What are the principal localities of the 

591 



592 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

fisheries? From what animals are furs obtained? What historical 
results arose from the fur-trade? What trouble has arisen about the 
fur seal? 

Where was the first English settlement made ? The second ? How 
did these two settlements differ in character? What system of prop- 
erty-holding was first established at Jamestown and Plymouth? What 
brought it to an end? Why were slaves of value to the settlers? 
What are the chief objections to slavery ? Does it now exist in any 
civilized nation ? Where may slavery now be found ? Why was 
the apprentice system founded? What became of the apprentices 
when set free? What do the dales 1619, 1787, 1808 suggest about 
slavery ? 

How did the English colonial governments differ from the French 
and Spanish ? What was the system of government in England ? 
Where was the first representative assembly established in America ? 
The second ? Did the English kings favor free government in America? 
What kings sought to overthrow it? Where was the first confederacy 
formed? For what purpose ? What were Governoi Berkeley's views 
about free education ? What those of the Puritans ? Was Berkeley 
right in calling Bacon a rebel ? What is a rebel ? 

What is now the usual route from Europe to Asia? What new 
route may be opened in the future ? (via Panama and Nicaragua Canals.) 
What reasons induced Englishmen to emigrate to America in early 
times? Why was Massachusetts so rapidly settled ? Did the English 
kings demand any return for their grants of land? Name some in- 
stances. What was the first colony within the United States limits? 
The second ? The third ? The fourth ? Does a new country call for 
harder work than an older one? Why? Name some things which 
the whites obtained from the Indians ; the Indians from the whites. 
What classes of settlers were there? From what class of settlers did 
Washington descend? 

What were the ideas of religious liberty at the time of Charles I.? 
What are they to-day? What were the religious views of the Puri- 
tans? What those of the Pilgrims? How did Roger Williams differ 
In opinion from the Puritans? What is meant by intolerance in re- 
ligion? What was Roger Williams's idea of religious tolerance? What 
Lord Baltimore's ? What made the Puritans bitter against the Quakers ? 
Kow did the Quakers triumph over persecution? 

Who were the regicides? Why did Charles II. annul the charter of 
Massachusetts? What rights were lost? What colonies kept their 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 593 

charters? Tell the sfory of Charter Oak. Why has Rhode Island two 
capitals? Why had Connecticut? What is meant by Navigation 
Laws? Why were these laws not obeyed ? Is it ever right to disobey 
laws? When? Did England find the New England colonies easy to 
govern ? What kind of government did they establish ? What events 
are suggested by the names Plymouth, Salem, Boston, New Amster- 
dam ? How came New Netherland to be named New York? Tell 
about the estates of the patroons. What was done about the pirates ? 
Was Jacob Leisler treated justly? In what way did William Penn 
have less power than Lord Baltimore ? What was the purpose of 
Mason and Dixon's line? Did it separate all the free and slave 
States? 

What colonies were tolerant in religion from principle? What 
forced to become tolerant? What is meant by a state church? What 
three religious sects refrained from persecution ? What sects were 
intolerant? Why is the word New added to so many American 
names ? Why did Manhattan Island sell so cheaply in 1626 ? What 
idea have you of its value to-day? What is meant by hereditary 
right? Has there ever been a nobility in America? Can any Ameri- 
can have a title of nobility? Why not? What were the large cities 
of colonial times? When was each founded, and by whom? Name 
some of our largest cities to-day. What historic buildings exist in 
Philadelphia? In Boston? In New York? How do our cities com- 
pare in age with those of Europe ? Who were the dissenters ? Who 
the Huguenots? Did any Huguenots settle in the French and Spanish 
colonies ? Why not ? Where did the Scotch-Irish come from ? What 
was the condition of debtors in Oglethorpe's time ? By what classes 
of people was Georgia settled ? How did the various colonies treat the 
Indians? By which proprietaries were they treated justly? 

What colonies were founded under proprietaries? What under 
charters ? What under royal government ? In what did these classes 
of colonies differ? What was the greatest extent of New France? 
What territory did Spain hold within the United States region ? How 
far west did the English grants of land go? On what did the English 
base their claims? On what did the French? In what way did Indian 
wars differ from white wars? What justification had the English in 
the expulsion of the Acadians? 

What wars took place between the English and French ? What 
results came from the first three wars ? What gave rise to the French 
and Indian War? Describe Braddock's campaign. Where was the 



51M QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

decisive battle fought? What was the result of this war? What new 
arrangements of territory took place ? How did this war prepare the 
colonies for the Revolutionary War ? What nations successively pos- 
sessed New York ? What nations the lands on the Delaware ? Describe 
the Swedish settlement of 1638. How did it end? Where was Fort 
Duquesne? What made its location important? Where was Fort 
Ticonderoga? 

What is meant by a stamp act? Why is it a convenient form of 
taxation? Why did America object to being taxed by England? What 
principal provocations drove the colonies to rebellion ? Why was the 
tea rejected ? Why did the Revolutionary War begin in Massachu- 
setts? Describe Paul Revere 's ride. What was its result? What 
events led to the Declaration of Independence? Who wrote it? What 
was the result of its adoption? What causes led to the Constitution? 
What objections were made to it? What rights does the Declaration 
of Independence claim for all men ? What does it say on the sources 
of government? How many Continental Congresses were there? 
What was done by the first ? What by the second ? How does the 
organization of the present Congress compare with that of the Conti- 
nental Congress ? Why were the Articles of Confederation unsatisfac- 
tory ? Why was a new Constitution necessary ? Is there any author- 
ity higher than the Constitution? Can State laws and Federal laws 
conflict? What body decides if laws are constitutional? 

What was the condition of the American cause in December, 1776? 
What event changed this condition? Describe the taking of New 
York ; of Philadelphia. What was the purpose of Burgoyne's cam- 
paign? What effect did his capture have on Europe? Why were 
Hessian soldiers hired by England ? How did the Americans regard 
them ? Which were the leading battles of the Revolution ? How was 
Washington treated? Wherein was Washington especially great? 
What important plan did the British seek to carry out in the North? 
How was the war conducted in the South ? What induced Arnold to 
turn traitor? What led to the capture of Cornwallis? What was the 
financial condition of the country in the Revolution ? 

Name the compacts or state papers connected with 1620, 1776, 1787, 
1863. Who were the Tories? What did the battle of Bunker Hill 
teach the British? Give three important incidents in the life of Wash- 
ington. Why were the Massachusetts militia called minute-men? 
State some of the leading features of the Constitution. How did the 
Cabinet originate ? Who were the leaders in the Constitutional Con- 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 595 

mention ? To what great series of state papers did the adoption of the 
Constitution give rise ? 

What part of the continent did the United States originally embrace? 
What does it now embrace ? What was the Northwestern Territory ? 
How obtained ? Into what States divided ? What department of the 
government has charge of foreign affairs ? What was the latest de- 
partment instituted? Which department has charge of Indian affairs? 
Of the signal service ? Name three acts of England that led to the 
Revolution. Who were the most prominent statesmen in the Constitu- 
tional Convention? What were the principles of the Anti-Federal 
party? What of the Federal? What events are suggested by the 
names of Franklin? Hamilton? Jefferson? Of Saratoga? Detroit? 
Gettysburg? 

State some fact about financial affairs in Washington's administra- 
tion. In Jackson's. What can you say about the Louisiana purchase? 
What were the causes of the war of 1812 ? Could it have been honor- 
ably averted? What is meant by right of search? What was the 
purpose of the embargo? How did it work? How did Napoleon 
treat this country? Why was war declared against England rather 
than France? Where was the war of 1812 principally fought? Why 
had the United States such success on the sea? What caused the 
failures of the first year of the war? What excuse did the English 
give for burning Washington ? What were the results of the war of 
1812? Name some evils of war. Some benefits. How can nations 
avoid war? What conditions indicate high civilization? What in- 
dicate low? What have been the causes of most of our Indian wars? 
Were the whites just to the Indians in the past? Are they to-day? 

When was the first United States bank established? When the 
second? Why did Jackson veto the bank charter? What President 
was elected without a contest? What was meant by the " era of good 
feeling"? What parties were there before 1820? What caused the 
decline of the Federal party ? What party advocated internal improve- 
ments? What great road was built by the government? What great 
water-way by the State of New York? How was the opening of the 
Erie Canal announced to New York City ? What effect had th6 Erie 
Canal on commerce ? What important event is associated with the 
4th of July, 1826? What other President died on the 4th of July? 

What was the Missouri Compromise? Name a statesman connected 
with it. What was the purpose of the Liberator newspaper ? By 
whom published? What is meant by the "spoils system"? What 



590 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

was the condition of office-holding before Jackson's administration? 
What afterward? What causes led to the panic of 1838? What great 
business depressions has this country experienced? What led to the 
Mexican War? Which were its principal campaigns? Did the Mexi- 
cans win any battles? What great territorial acquisition did Ihe 
United States obtain? What portion of this territory proved the most 
valuable ? Why ? What is meant by the Gadsden Purchase ? Why 
was it made? What was the Wilmot Proviso? Which Presidents died 
in office ? Which were assassinated ? 

What was the tariff law of 1828? In whose administration made? 
To what action did it give rise in South Carolina? How was this 
trouble ended? By whom? What is a tariff? What revenue for 
protection ? What free trade ? Is there any tariff between the States ? 
What party sustains a protective tariff? What tariff for revenue? Is 
there direct taxation in the United States? Against what levied ? Do 
the people who have no property pay any tax ? In what form ? What 
privilege does it give them? Tell how our Northern boundary was 
settled. By what various means did the United States acquire terri- 
tory? What compromise was made in the admission of California? 
What were the effects of the Fugitive Slave Law ? What was the plat- 
form of the Know-Nothing party? Define the Dred Scott decision. 
What is meant by squatter sovereignty? When did the Republican 
party arise? What were its principles? What gave rise to the 
troubles in Kansas? What can you say about the ownership of 
Florida? What internal improvements are provided for by the United 
States? What by individuals? For what purposes is the revenue of 
the United States expended? What are the objections to the spoils 
system? Should offices be given as political rewards? Why not? 
What is a veto ? Does it necessarily defeat a bill ? What kinds of 
money have the United States issued ? 

Why were compromises on the slavery question important? What 
compromises were made? Did they avert the difficulty? What was 
the purpose of the Fugitive Slave Law? What its effect? What is 
meant by the Underground Railroad ? Why did runaway slaves seek 
Canada? What was the first political party that opposed slavery? 
On what did the South base the right to secede ? Has the power that 
made the United States the right to dissolve it? What were the imme- 
diate causes of the Civil War? What effect had the attack on Fort 
Sumter? What is meant by drafting men for an army? Why is it 
unpopular? What violence did the draft law occasion in New York? 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 597 

Why did the South suffer more than the North in the war? In what 
cases did the North suffer from invasion? 

What was the purpose of the Army of the Potomac ? Name its suc- 
cessive commanders. A battle under each and its result. State in 
order the four great wars of the United States. Some important ques- 
tion involved in each. What was settled by each? What is State 
sovereignty ? What squatter sovereignty ? What nations of Europe 
recognized the Confederates as belligerents? What privileges does 
such recognition confer? State some event connected with Balti- 
more, Harper's Ferry, Charleston, Savannah, during the war. What 
was the purpose of John Brown's raid ? What the result? 

How did President Buchanan act toward the seceded States? How 
President Lincoln ? Describe the national influence of Lincoln, Sum- 
ner, Clay, Webster, Calhoun. Of the Louisiana purchase. Name 
three prominent generals and three statesmen of the Confederacy. 
Name the generals of the Civil War who became Presidents. 

What was the Webster- Ashburton treaty ? How was Texas acquired ? 
Florida? Oregon? Alaska? Name an American statesman connected 
with the Missouri Compromise ; Wilmot Proviso ; Kansas-Nebraska 
bill ; Fugitive Slave Law. How were lands acquired from the Indians? 
What was done with the Indians of the South ? What gave rise to the 
Seminole War? The Pontiac? The Black Hawk? Where are the 
Indians now principallv located ? Under what conditions and organi- 
zation ? 

Where was the first great battle of the Civil War? What its result? 
Where was the first battle of ironclads fought ? How did these iron- 
clads differ? What was the result? What first made General Grant 
famous? How did he succeed in capturing Vicksburg? How was 
New Orleans taken ? What i^reat battles took place near Chattanooga ? 
In what battle was Albert Sidney Johnston killed ? In what Stonewall 
Jackson? What was the result of the second Bull Run battle? What 
of the battle of Antietam ? When was the battle of Gettysburg fought? 
How long did it continue? What were its results? What route did 
McClellan take for the siege of Richmond ? What was the result of 
his campaign ? What route did General Grant take ? What great 
battles did he fight ? What eity did he besiege ? What was the route 
of General Sherman's march? How far did it extend? Why was 
Richmond evacuated? When and where did General Lee surrender? 
When was Lincoln assassinated ? What was the purpose of the assas- 
sins? 



598 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What was the purpose of the Emancipation Proclamation ? What 
the object of the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution? The four- 
teenth? The fifteenth ? What was the Tenure of Office act? The Civil 
Rights bill ? Why was President Johnson impeached ? What body 
conducted the impeachment trial ? What was the result? 

When was the first Pacific Railroad laid ? When the first ocean 
telegraph? How many of each are there to-day? What is meant by 
specie payment? When has it been suspended in American history? 
Why ? Is paper money real money ? What gives it value ? Why did 
the Continental currency lose value ? How did Union victories affect 
the price of gold? To what premium did gold rise during the war? 
When was specie payment resumed? What was the highest United 
States debt ? What is the debt to-day ? 

What is meant by treason? Is war as cruel now as of old? Is 
private property more respected ? Why did the United States object 
to the French invasion of Mexico? What American policy did it 
violate? What gave rise to the Monroe Doctrine? On what great 
occasions has it been applied ? Why was it wrong for Great Britain to 
let the Alabama sail? What injury was done to our commerce? 
What was the purpose of the Alabama arbitration? How much did 
Great Britain pay for her fault ? How much did the United States pay 
on account of the fisheries ? 

What objections are there to universal suffrage? What arguments 
in its favor? What was the purpose of the Electoral Commission of 
1877? From what bodies was it taken? What was the result? What 
is meant by Civil Service Reform? In whose administration did it 
begin? When and why was President Garfield assassinated? What 
has been the result of the Civil Service Reform movement? What 
large body of office-holders are still appointed by the President? How 
many Presidents have served two terms? How did Cleveland's two 
terms ditTer from those of the others? How many Presidents were 
military men? How many were civilians? What important tariff 
changes have taken place since 1860? What great tracts of land have 
been set aside by .the United States as public parks? Why ? What is 
the purpose of forestry reservations? 

What different systems of government existed in the colonies? 
What was Franklin's plan of union? What Congresses were held in 
colonial times ? What were the defects of the Articles of Confedera- 
tion? To what danger did these give rise? How was this danger 
avoided in the Constitution? What are the three branches of the 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 599 

present government? The duties and powers of each ? What govern- 
mental departments are there ? Who are the Cabinet officials ? Who 
the successors of the President in case of death ? What do you knowr 
of the progress of American finance ? What of the postal system ? 
Who was the first Postmaster-General ? At what rate has immigration 
grown? Why are many of the present immigrants undesirable ? Why 
were the Chinese excluded ? What led to the rapid settlement of the 
West? What of the Pacific slope ? How have means of transportation 
developed ? What great invention was made in the eighteenth century ? 
What have been the leading inventions of the nineteenth century ? At 
what rate has the population increased? How did the population in 
1790 compare with that in 1890? 



INDEX. 



Abolition movement, 304, 3'20, 340, "506 

Acadia, settlement in, 50; capture of, 
148 

Acadians, expulsion of the, 160 

Achievements of the engineers, 472 

Adams, John, 184, 201, 232; adminis- 
tration of, 256 

Adams, John Quincy, administration 
of, 295 

Adams, Samuel, 186. 188, 191 

Agriculture, conditions of, 531, 534 

Aguinaldo, 459, 461 

Alabama admitted, 291 

Alabama, capture of the, 402; claims 
arbitrated, 419 

Alaska, purchase, 417; gold discov- 
ered, 452; boundary arbitration, 
465, 476 

Albany, site of, 102 

Albemarle colony, 122 

Algiers, pirates of, 254; war with, 
284 

Alien and sedition laws, 258 

Allen, Ethan, 195 

Amendments to the Constitution, 249, 
260, 413, 414, 418, 472, 509 

America, discovery of, 22; named, 25 

American commerce, outrages on, 271 

American party, 337, 500 

Amnesty to South, 416 

Amusements in New England, 136 

Anaesthesia discovered, 318 

Anarchists, Chicago, 437 

Anderson, Major, 350, 405 

Andre, capture of Major, 226 

Andros, Edmund, 99, 106, 109 

Animals, domestic, 533 

Annapolis, Nova Scotia, 50, 148; 
Maryland, 119 

Anniversary celebrations, 443 

Antietam, battle of, 377 



Anti-Masotis, 298 

Anti-renters, 313 

Appalachian Indians, 149 

Apprentice system, 69, 502 

Arbitrations, 419; treaties for, 466 

Archdale, John, 125 

Architecture, American, 554 

Arizona, 467, 471 

Arkansas admitted, 306 

Armies, Civil War, 355, 410 

Army, disbandment of, 234; condition of, 
in Cuba, 455; in the European war, 
484 

Arnold, Benedict, 198, 203, 215, 216, 
226, 229 

Arthur, Chester A., elected Vice- 
President, 431; becomes President, 
433 

Artists, American, 545 

Assemblies dissolved, 182 

Assembly, the first, 71, 488 

Atlanta, capture of, 396; exhibition, 
444 

Atlantic telegraph, 417 

Australian ballot, 442 



B 



Bacon's rebellion, 76 
Balboa discovers the Pacific, 27 
Ballinger, Richard A., 470 
Baltimore founded, 119; attacked, 

282; soldiers attacked in, 351 
Balti^more, Lord, 116, 119 
Banks, General, on Red River, 400 
Banks, Reserve, 475 
Bennington, battle of, 213 
Bering Sea question, 441 
Berkeley, Lord, 108 
Berkeley, Sir William, 74, 76 
Black Hawk War, 305 
Blaine, James G., 435 

601 



602 



INDEX 



Blockade of the South, 351, 353, 3.')4, 
359; of Cuba, 454; of Santiago, 454 

Books for reference, list of, 585 

Boone, Daniel, 233 

Booth, John Wilkes, 406 

Boston settled, 84; soldiers in, 183; 
massacre, 184; tea-party, 186; port 
bill, 187; fortified by Gage, 191; 
besieged, 193; evacuated, 199; fire, 
421 

Boundary of United States, 232; set- 
tlement of northern, 314; of Alas- 
kan, 465 

Braddock's defeat, 158 

Bradford, William, 81 

Bragg, General, in Kentucky, 369; 
at Chickamauga, 388; at Missionary 
Ridge, 389 

Brandywine, battle of, 211 

British retreat from Concord, 193 

Brown, John, in Kansas, 330; at Har- 
per's Ferry, 341 

Bryan, William J., 450, 400 

Bryant, William Cullen, 542 

Buchanan, James, administration of, 
340; inaction of, 346 

Buell, General, 366, 367; replaced by 
Rosecrans, 370 

Buena Vista, battle of, 323 

Bull Run battle, first, 357; second, 
376 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 196 

Burgoyne, General, 210, 211, 213, 216 

Burnside, General, 369; replaces Mc- 
Clellan, 378; at Fredericksburg, 379 

Burr, Aaron, 260, 265, 266 

Business depression of 1837, 309; of 
1857, 343; of 1873, 425; of 1893, 
445 

Butler, General, at New Orleans, 368 



C"abinet, formation of the, 249, 497 
Cabots, discoveries of the, 26 
Cabrillo's voyage, 44 
Calhoun, John C, 273, 297, 301, 333 
California explored, 44; conquered, 

324; purchased, 326; emigration to, 

328; progress of, 329 
Calverts, the, in Maryland, 116-121 



Canada, first settlement, 48; ceded to 
England, 168; invaded, 198, 275, 279 

Canal, Erie, 292, 513; Isthmian', 464, 
465 

Cape Breton discovered, 45 

Cape Cod, pilgrims at, 79 

Cape Verde squadron, 454; destruc- 
tion of, 456 

Carolinas, the, 121-126; divided, 125; 
^fe in, 143; invaded by Indians, 
149 

Carpenter's Hall, 189 

Carpet-bag government, 415 

Carteret, Sir George, 108 

Cartier, Jacques, 46 

Cass, Lewis, 329 

Catholics in Maryland, 118-120 

Census of 1890, 442; of 1900, 461 

Centennial Exhibition, 426 

Champlain's career, 50 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 380 

Chapultepec taken, 325 

Charles I, 72, 85, 98 

Charles II, 75, 98, 111 

Charleston settled, 123; attacked, 
149; taken, 224, 403; earthquake, 
437 

Charter Oak, 100 

Charter, Puritan, 84; Rhode Island, 
92; Connecticut, 97; Pennsylvania, 
111; Maryland, 117; Carolina, 122 

Cherokees, 305 

Chesapeake affair, the, 268; capture 
of the, 277 

Chicago founded, 306; fire, 421; anar- 
chists, 447 

Chickamauga, battle of, 388 

Chile, trouble with, 440 

China, treaty with, 417; troubles in, 
460 

Chinese exclusion, 436, 522 

Christian Commission, 410 

Chronology, summary of, 583 

Cincinnati founded, 242 

Cities in 1790, 244, 245 

Civil service reform, 432, 447 

Claims of European nations, 60 

Clarendon colony, 123 

Clark, George R., Colonel, 220 

Clay, Henry, 273, 291, 296, 297, 302, 
307, 312, 319, 333 



INDEX 



603 



Clayborne trouble, the, 119 

Cleveland, Grover, President, 435; 
defeated, 438; re-elected, 445 

Cliff-dwellers, 39 

Clinton, George, 265, 269 

Clinton, Sir Henry, 218 

Coal, use of, 244; in Alaska, 470 

Coinage, colonial, 506; United States, 
575 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 392 ' 

Colfax, Schuyler, 418 

Colleges in the colonies, 548, 550 

Colonies, diversity of, 61; customs 
in, 131-141; rebellion of, 188 

Colonists, Spanish and French, 485, 
British, 486, original, 517 

Colorado admitted, 426 

Columbia River discovered, 250 

Columbian World's Exhibition, 443 

Columbus, Christopher, 17-24 

Commerce, early, 14; and Labor, De- 
partment of, 465, 474 

Commerce, early, 14, 15, 173; checks 
to, 267, 271; British, 244, 286, 536 

Commission government, 476 

Committee of Correspondence, 188 

Compromise tariff, 302; of 1850, 331 

Concord, British at, 193 

Confederacy of New England, 98; 
Southern, 346 

Confederation, articles of, 494 

Congress, Continental, 189, 190, 195, 
487; weakness of, 237, 240; first 
under Constitution, 248 

Connecticut settled, 94; government 
of, 97; charter saved, 100 

Conscription, 439 

Conservation of natural resources, 
470 

Constitution and GuerriOre, 276 

Constitution of the United States, 
552; amendments to the, 4V2; com- 
promises of the, 239; ratification 
of the, 240; effect of, 247; branches 
of the government under the, 495 

Constitution of Virginia, 71; of Con- 
necticut, 97; first written, 489 

Constitutional convention, the, 238, 
494 

Continental Congress, first, 189, 190; 
second, 195, 490 



Controversy, active, 470 

Convention system, the, 496 

Conway cabal, the, 217 

Cookery in New England, 133 

Copyright law, 441 

Corinth, battle of, 370 

Cornwallis, General, 206, 208, 228- 

230 
Coronado's expedition, 44 
Cotton-gin, the, 246, 501, 505, 533 
Court, trusts in, 471 
Cowpens, battle of, 227 
Coxey army, the, 446 
Credit, Mobilier, 422 
Creek Indian War, 282 
Creeks, removal of the, 297 
Cuba, discovery of, 23; war in, 448; 

insurrection in, 452; starvation of 

people of, 452; blockade of, 454; 

invasion of, 455; independence of, 

464 
Cumberland road, the, 292 
Custer, General, death of, 424 



D 



Dale, Governor, 66 

Davis, Jefferson, President of the 

Confederate States, 346, 349, 406 
Davis, John, 54 
De Ayllon, 42 
Debt, public, 518-515 
Debtors, a colony of, 127 
Decatur destroys the Philadelphia, 

262 
Declaration of Independence, the, 

202, 559 
Deerfield, massacre at, 148 
De Gourgues's revenge, 48 
Delaware, Lord, 66 
Delaware, settlement of, 116 
Delaware, settlements on the, 110; 

Washington crosses the, 207 
Demarcation, line of, 27 
Democratic party, 296, 493 
De Monts in Acadia, 49 
De Narvaez, Panfilo, 42 
Departments, government, 465, 474, 

497 
Deposits removed, 303 
De Soto, Fernando, 43, 44 



604 



INDEX 



Detroit, surrender of, 274; recapture 

of, 279 
De Vaca, Cabeza, 43 
Dewey, Commodore, 454; Admiral, 

459 
Dinwiddie, Governor, 154 
Dorr rebellion, 313 
Douglas, Stephen A., 344, 345 
Dover settled, 92 
Draft riot, 410; law, 483 
Drake, Sir Francis, 53 
Dred Scot case, 341, 507 
Dress in New England, 135; of 

Dutch, 139; in South, 142 
Drinking habits, 136, 143 
Dunmore, Lord, 200 
Dustin, Mrs., escape of, 147 
Dutch explorers, 68; in Connecticut, 

94; settlements, 102; church, 104; 

take New Sweden, 105, 110; colony, 

138-140 



E 



Eads, J. B., 431 

Early's raid, 393 

Earthquakes, 437, 466 

Education, 540 

Election, the, of 1912, 473; of 1916, 
481 

Electoral Commission, 427 

Electors, system of, 495 

Emancipation proclamation, 379, 497, 
508 

Embargo act, 268 

Emigrants to the West, 243 

Emigration, 318, 520 

Endicott, John, 83, 86 

Engineers, achievements of the, 472 

England, troubles with, 230, 254 

English explorers, 53; first colony, 
58; take New Amsterdam, 105 

Era of good feeling, 286 

Erie Canal, 292, 519 

Ericsson, John, 306 

Essex taken, the, 278 

Europe, mediaeval, 11; early com- 
merce of, 14; war in, 480 

European nations, claims of, 60 

Express system organized, 528 



Fair Oaks, battle of, 374 

Farragut, Admiral, 302, 368, 401 

Federal party, 240, 285, 498 

Federalist, The, 541 

Fenian raid, 416 

Field, Cyrus W., 343 

Fillmore elected Vice-President, 329; 
President, 332; defeated, 339 

Finance, colonial, 509; of Revolution, 
511; of Morris and Hnmilton, 51Vi 

Financial measures. 476, 483, 509-516 

Fisheries, 537, 538 

Flag, American, 214 

Flood, the Ohio, 475 

Florida discovered, 42; French in, 47; 
ceded to England, 169; ceded to 
Spain, 232; purchased, 289; ad- 
mitted, 317 

Forest preservation, 448, 536, 637 

Fort Carolina, 47; Orange, 102; Nas- 
sau, 102, 108; Duquesne, 156, 165; 
Necessity, 157; William Henry, 
162, 163; T'iconderoga, 162, 163, 195; 
Moultrie, 199; Washington, 205; 
Lee, 205; Stanwix, 214; Sumter, 
346, 349, 405; Henry, 365; Donelson, 
365; Pillow, 400; Fisher, 401 

Forts seized in South, 346; taken at 
New Orleans, 367 

Fountain of youth, 41 

France loses her colonies, 169; treaty 
with, 217; hostility with, 257; naval 
war, 258 

Franking privilege, 422 

Franklin, Benjamin, 170, 180, 201, 
232, 492, 523, 543 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 378 

Freedmen's Bureau, 413 

Free silver campaign, 450 

Free-soil i)arty, 328 

Fremont, John C, 324, 339, 355 

French and Indian War, 152; results 
of, 170 

French explorers, 45; claims, 52; in 
Louisiana, 129; forts, 154; fleets, 
218, 219, 230 

Friends, in Pennsylvania, 110 

Frobisher's voyages, 54 

Frontenac and the Iroquois, 146 



INDEX 



605 



Fruits, culture of, 538 

Fugitive slave law, 3.32 

Fulton invents the steamboat, 2G6, 

519 
Fur seals, 441 

Fur traders in New York, 103 
Furs, 535 



Gadsden Purchase, 326 

Gage, General, 183, 189, 191 

Garfield, James A., election of, 430 
assassination of, 432 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 304, 506 

Gaspee burned, the, 184 

Gates, General, 216, 224 

Genet, French minister, -253 

George III, character of, 172 

Georgia settled, 126; laws of, 128; in- 
vaded, 151; Indians of, 297 

Germantown settled, 115; battle of, 
211 

Gerry, Elbridge, 285 

Gettysburg, battle of, 383-385 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 54 

Gold discovery, 327, 452; fever, 328; 
premium on, 407; reserve, 429 

Goodyear's india-rubber, ?33 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 90 

Gosnold's expedition, 56 

Government, new, 240; organized, 
249; difficulties of, 250; commission, 
477; of cities, 477; paternal, 486; 
representative, 487; of colonies, 488, 
489; departments of, 497 

Grand Model government, 124 

Grant, Ulysses S., first command of, 
364; captures Forts Henry and Don- 
elson, 365; at Shiloh, 367; captures 
Vicksburg, 386; commands in West, 
389; commander-in-chief, 390; plan 
of campaign, 391; advance on Rich- 
mond, 392; Lee surrenders to, 405; 
President, 418; re-elected, 424; tomb 
of, 442 

Gray, Captain, discovers the Columbia 
River, 250 

Great Law of Pennsylvania, 112 

Greeley, Horace, 425 

Greene, General, in South, 227-229 



Greenland discovered, 12 

Guilford Court-IIouse, battle of, 228 

H 

Hale, Nathan, 204 

Ilalleck, General Henry W., 355; com- 
mander-in-chief, 375 

Hamilton, Alexander, 238, 249, 251, 
265, 512 

Hancock, John, 190, 191, 195, 201 

Hancock, General Winfield S., 431 

Harper's Ferry, 341, 377 

Harrison, Benjamin, President, 438, 
445 

Harrison, William Henry, 272, 275, 
279, 307; President, 310, 311 

Hartford founded, 94; convention, 284 

Harvard College, 548 

Harvey, Sir John, 74 

Haverhill, massacre at, 147, 148 

Hawaii, 447, annexation of, 457 

Hawkins, Sir John, 53 

Hayes, Rutherford B., 426; President, 
427, 428 

Hayne supports nullification, 301 

Hayti discovered, 23 

Helderberg War, 314 

Hendricks, Thomas A., 435 

Hennepin explores the Mississippi^ 51 

Henry, Patrick, 179, 190 

Herkimer, General, 214 

Hessians hired, 198 

Historians, American, 542 

Hobart, Garret A., Vice-President, 
449 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 229 

Hobson, Lieutenant, and the Merri- 
mac, 455 

Homestead strike, 443 

Hood, General, at Atlanta, 396; in- 
vades Tennessee, 397; defeat at 
Nashville, 398 

Hooker, General, at Chancellorsville, 
380; resigns, 382; at Lookout Moun- 
tain, 389 

Hospitality, Southern, 141 

Houses in New England, 131-134; in 
New Amsterdam, 139 

Houston, General, in Texas, 316 

Howe, General, 196, 203, 210 



006 



INDEX 



Hudson, Henry, 58 
Hudson River explored, 58 
Huguenots in Florida, 46; in Carolina, 

123 
Hull, General, surrenders Detroit, 

274 
Hutchinson, Anne, 87-92 



Idaho admitted, 439 

Hlinois admitted, 291 

Immigration, 479, 617, 521, 522 

Impeachment of President Johnson, 
415 

Inauguration of Washington, 248 

Income tax, 407, 475 

Independence, declaration of, 201, 202 

Indian massacres in Virginia, 72-74, 
75; wars in Carolina, 126; question, 
423 

Indiana admitted, 2S5 

Indians named, 23, 28; enslaved, 25; 
character and customs, 28-40; Brad- 
ford's dealing with, 81; Penn's 
treaty with, 114; war with Western, 
252 

Indian Territory, 298, 305, 467 

Indigo cultivated, 124, 532 

Industrial exhibitions, 434 

Industries of the country, 243 

Initiative and Referendum, 476 

Inter-State commerce, 436 

Intolerable acts, the, 187 

Inventions, 246, 306, 553 

Iowa admitted, 326 

Ironclads, first battle of, 361 

Iroquois Indians, 50, 103, 146, 220 

Irrigation, 535 

Irving, Washington, 542 

Isabella, Queen, 19, 25 

Island No. 10, 366 

Italy, trouble with, 440 



Jackson, Andrew, 282, 283, 289, 295; 

administration of, 299, 300, 302, 

303; re-elected, 307 
Jackson, Stonewall, 358, 373, 375, 

376, 377, 381 



James I., 71 

James II., 99 

Jamestown founded, 58; story of col- 
ony, 61-66; exposition, 465 

Japan opened, 338 

Jasper, Sergeant, 200, 224 

Jay, John, 232, 249, 254 

Jefferson, Thomas, 201, 249, 255; ad- 
ministration of, 261, 264, 265 

John Brown raid, 341, 508 

Johnson, Andrew, Vice-President, 
403; President, 412; impeachment 
of, 415 

Johnston, General Albert S., at Shiloh, 
367 

Johnston, General Joseph E., 354, 357, 
373, 390, 405 

Johnstown flood, 439 



K 



Kansas, 335; fighting in, 336; ad- 
mitted, 342; troubles, 507 

Kearny, General, in New Mexico, 
324 

Kentucky admitted, 250; invaded, 
364 

Key, Francis S., 282 

Kidd, Captain, 107 

King George's War, 149 

King Philip's War, 89 

King William's War, 145 

King's Mountain, battle of, 225 

Kitchen, New England, 134 

Klondike, gold found on the, 452 

Know-Nothing party, 337, 494 

Knoxville, siege of, 390 



Labor associations, 437; department, 

474 
Lafayette, Marquis de, 209, 229, 293 
Lake Champlain, battle of, 280 
Lake Erie, battle of, 278 
Lake George, battle of, 161 
Landing of the Pilgrims, 79 
La Rabida convent, 19 
La Salle, story of, 51, 52 
Laudonnif're, 47 
Lawrence, Captain, death of, 277 



INDEX 



607 



Lee, General Charles, 205, 218 

Lee, General Henry, 227, 252 

Lee, Richard Henry, 201 

Lee, General Robert E., 354; in com- 
mand, 374; attacks McClellan, 375; 
at Bull Run, 376; at Antietam, 377; 
at Fredericksburg, 378; at Chancel- 
lorsville, 380; at Gettysburg, 384, 
392, 403; surrender of, 405 

Legislation, new, 471 

Legislature, first, 71 

Leisler rebellion, 107 

Lewis and Clark expedition, 264, 265 

Lexington, battle of, 192 

Libraries, 545 

Lincoln, Abraham, 322, 344, 345; ad- 
ministration of, 348; proclaims 
emancipation, 379, 403, death of, 
406 

Lincoln, General, 224 

Literature, 541, 544 

Livingston, Robert R., 201 

London Company, 57 

Long Island, battle of, 204 

Longstreet, General, at Gettysburg, 
384; at Chickamauga, 388; at Knox- 
ville, 390 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 389 

Lord North, 183 

Louisburg taken, 150, 151, 164 

Louisiana settled, 129; crops of, 138; 
ceded to Spain, 169; purchase, 263; 
admitted, 285 
Louisville founded, 242 
Lyon, General, 356 



M 

McClellan, General George B., in 
West Virginia, 357; commander-in- 
chief, 371; before Richmond, 372; 
seven days' battle, 375; at 
Antietam, 377; removal of, 378; can- 
didate for President, 403 
McDonough, Commodore, 280 
McDowell, General Irwin, 357, 373 
McKinley, William, President, 451, 

460; assassination of, 462 
Madison, James, 237; elected Presi- 
dent, 269; policy of, 270 



Magellan's voyage, 27 
Magruder, General John B., 372 
Maine, settlement of, 90; admitted, 

292 
Maine, sinking of the, 453 
Manhattan Island, 60, 102 
Manila, battle in bay of, 454; capture 

of, 458 
Manufactures, American, 173, 243 
Marietta settled, 242 
Marion, General Francis, 225 
Marquette on the Mississippi, 51 
Marshall, Chief Justice, 260 
Maryland settled, 116-120; invaded, 

376 
Mason and Dixon's line, 121 
Mason and Slidell, 359 
Mason, John, 91 

Massachusetts, colony, 83; growth of, 
85; new government, 101; provincial 
Congress, 190, 196 

Massacre at St. Augustine, 48; in 
Virginia, 72, 74, 75; in New York, 
104; in King William's War, 146; 
in Queen Anne's War, 148 

Massasoit, treaty with, 81, 89 

Matamoras occupied, 323 

Maximilian in Mexico, 416 

Mayflower compact, the, 558 

Mayflower, voyage of the, 79 

Meade, General George G., 383 

Mecklenburg County resolutions, 200 

Memphis, capture of, 368 

Met:endez, Pedro, 47 

Merrimac, the, in . Hampton Roads, 
360; blown up, 373 

Merrimac, sinking the collier, 454 

Mexican revolutions, 477 

Mexican War, 321; results of, 326 

Mexico, city of, occupied, 325 

Michigan admitted, 306 

Military service in New England, 
138 

Minnesota admitted, 342 

Mint founded, 252 

Minuit, Governor, 102 

Minute-men, 190 

Missionary explorations, 51 

Missionary Ridge, 389 

Mississippi admitted, 291 



COS 



INDEX 



Mississippi River, 43; discovered by 
De Soto, 44; Marijuette on, 51; La 
Salle on, 52; opened, 387; jetties of, 
430; overrlow of, 451 

Mississippi scheme, the, 130 

Missouri admitted, 292; contest for, 
356 

Missouri Compromise, 291, 505 

Mobile founded, 129; taken, 401 

Monitor and Merrimac, 301 

Monmouth, battle of, 218 

Monroe doctrine, 290, 447 

Monroe, James, 263; President, 285 

Montana admitted, 439 

Montcalm, Marquis de, 162; death of, 
167 

Monterey taken, 323 

Montgomery, General, killed, 198 

Montreal taken, 168 

Morgan, Daniel, 227 

Morgan's raid, 387 

Mormons, the, 317 

Morris, Robert, 233, 512 

Morse, telegraph discovered by, 31S 

Morton discovers anaesthesia, 318 

Morton, Levi P., Vice-President, 438 

Mound-builders, the, 37-39 

Murfreesboro', battle of, 370 

Museums, 545 



N 



Napoleon, duplicity of, 271 

Narragansett Indians destroyed, 89 

Natchez Indians destroyed, 130 

National banks, 408, 475, 515 

National Parks, 448 

National Republican party, 290 

National road, 267, 521 

Nat Turner insurrection, 304 

Natural gas, 546 

Naval victories, 276, 278 

Naval squadrons, 458 

Navigation laws, 74, 172 

Navy, United States, 449, 468 

Nebraska, 335; admitted, 417 

Nevada admitted, 410 

New Amsterdam, 102, 104, 105 

Newark founded, 108 

New-Bern founded, 123 

New Castle, Penn at, 112 



New England named, 77; first settle- 
ment, 80; customs of, 131-138; trade 
of, 174 

Newfoundland, fisheries of, 45, 191 

New France, 46 

New Hampshire settled, 90 

New Haven colony, 96 

New Jersey, 108, 109 

New Mexico occupied, 324; purchased, 
320; admitted, 471 

New Netherland, 102; Company, 103 

New Orleans founded, 130; battle of, 
283; taken, 368 

Newport settled, 92 

Newspapers, 543, 544 

New Sweden, 105, 110 

New York, 102, 105, 138, 204 

Non-intercourse act, 269 

North, advantages of the, 352 

North Carolina settled, 122 

North Dakota admitted, 439 

Northmen, the, 12 

North Pole, discovery of, 469 

Northwest passage, 53 

Northwestern Territory, 236, 237, 242 

Nova Scotia, 149 

Nullification, 297, 302 



Ocean telegraph, 343 

Office-holding, 300 

Oglethorpe, colony of, 126, 127; inva- 
sion of Florida by, 151 

Ohio admitted, 261 

Ohio, Company, the, 153 

Oklahoma opened, 438; State of, 467 

Old Dominion, the, 77 

Old Stone Mill, the, 13 

Orders in council, 273 

Oregon explored, 264; question, 315; 
admitted 342 

Oregon, voyage of the. 456 

Oriskany, battle of, 214 

Oswego taken, 162 



Pacific discovered, 27; explored, 44 

Pacific Railroad, 420 

Packenham, (Jeneral, death of, 283 



INDEX 



609 



Paine's " Common Sense," 201 
Palo Alto, battle of, 323 
Pales, 20, 23 

Panama Canal and treaty, 476 
Pan-American Congress, 439; Exposi- 
tion, 461 
Panic of 1837, 308; of 1857, 343; of 

1873, 425 
Paper money, 10 
Parcels post, 471 
Parks, public, 554 
Patroons, the, 103 
Patterson, General Robert, 357 
Paul Jones, John, 221 
Peace with France, 168; with Eng- 
land, 232, 283; with Spain, 458, 477 
Pea Ridge, battle of, 371 
Penn, William, 109, 110; in America, 

112; treaty, 114, 115 
Pennsylvania, settled. 111; Dutch, 

507 
Pensions, 441 
People of Pennsylvania, 140; location 

of the, 513 
People's rights, 106, 118; party, 440, 

501 
Pepperell, William, 150 
Pequot War, 95 
Perry, Captain, on Lake Erie, 278, 

279 
Perry, Commodore, in Japan, 338 
Perryville, battle of, 369 
Petersburg, siege of, 392, 395 
Petroleum discovered, 552 
Philadelphia founded, 112; growth of, 
114; life in, 140; taken, 211; evacu- 
ated, 218 
Philip, King, 89 
Philippine Islands, cession of, 458; 

war in, 459 
Phipps, Sir William, 148 
Pickett's charge at Gettysburg, 384 
Pierce, Franklin, President, 334 
Pilgrims, landing of, 79 
Pinchot, Gifford, 470 
Pinckney, Charles, 257 
Pirates, the, 107 
Pitt, William, 164, 191 
Plantation life, 141 
Plymouth Company, 57, 77; colony, 
80-83 



Pocahontas, 63, 68 

Political conditions, 454; reform, 467; 
parties, 498, 506 

Polk, James K., President, 317, 319, 
320 

Polk, General Leonidas, 364, 366 

Polo, Marco, 11, 15 

Polygamy, 434 

Ponce de Leon, 42 

Pontiac's War, 170 

Pope, General John, 366, 376 

Popham, Sir George, 57 

Population, 241, 512, 513 

Porter, Commodore, 368 

Porto Rico, invasion of, 457; cession 
of, 458; affairs in, 462 

Port Royal, 46, 49, 148 

Portugal, 15, 41 

Postage rates, 520 

Postal reform, 333; savings bank, 
471; service, 529 

Potato, the, 521 

Powhatan, 63 

President and Little Belt, 272 

Presidential succession, 498 
Presidents, table of the, 582 
Princeton, battle of, 209 
Progressive party, 473 
Prohibition, 477 

Proprietaries of Carolina, 128; govern- 
ment of, in New Jersey, 108 
Prosecutions, trust, 476 
Protective tariff, 288 
Public improvements, 292, 297 
Pueblo Indians, 38 
Pulaski, Count, death of, 224 
Pullman strike, the, 446 
Punishments in the colonies, 137 
Puritans in England, 78; seek 
America, 83; bigotry of, 86; in New 
Jersey, 108; in Maryland, 119; dress 
of, 135 
Putnam, General Israel, 193 



Quakers, persecution of, 88; buy New 
Jersey, 109; settle Pennsylvania, 
110 

Quartering Act, the, 181 



010 



INDEX 



(Jiiebec, settlement of, 50; taken by 
Captain Kirk, 145; attacked, 148; 
besieged and taken by Wolfe, 165- 
167 

Queen Anne's War, 148 

Questions for Review, 591 

Quincy, Josiah, 184 

R 

Railroad extension, 420, 521; strike, 
430; eight hour law, 479 

Raleigh's colonies, 56 

Randolph, Peyton, 189 

Recall, the, 476 

Reconstrviction Acts, 414 

Red River expedition, 400 

Referendum, Initiative and, 476 

Regicides, the, 98 

Religious liberty in Rhode Island, 
93; in Maryland, 116, 118; stric- 
tures in New England, 131; re- 
strictions, 491 

Representative Assembly, first, 71, 
487 

Republican party, 253, 338, 500, 508 

Resaca de la Palma, 322 

Resources, natural, conservation of, 
470 

Revenue surplus, 303; during war, 407 

Revere's ride, Paul, 192 

Revolutions, Mexican, 475 

Reynolds, General, death of, 383 

Rhode Island settled, 92; religious 
liberty in, 93; contest in, 312, 313 

Ribault, Jean, 46, 121 

Rice planted, 124, 532 

Richmond, panic at, 373; McClellan's 
siege of, 372; Grant's advance on, 
392; surrender of, 403 

Right of search, 272, 314 

Roads, early, 524 

Roanoke Island colony, 56 

Rolfe, John, 67 

Roosevelt, Theodore, in Spanish War, 
455; Vice-President, 460, becomes 
President, 463; elected President, 
4(4^ 

Rosecrans, General William S., in 
West Virginia, 357; at Corinth, 370; 
at C'hickamauga, 388 



Rotation in office, 300 
Royal colonies, 101, 106, 109, 125, 
128, 490 



St. Augustine founded, 48; taken, 
149; besieged, 151 

St. Louis Exposition, 465 

St. Leger's campaign, 212 

St. Mary founded, 118, 120 

.Salary grab bill, 422 

Salem settled, 83; witchcraft, 90 

Sampson, Admiral William T., 454 

.San Francisco, 328, 444, 460 

Sanitary Commission, 410 

.Santa Fe founded, 45 

Santiago, blockade of, 454; battle of, 
456; surrender of, 457 

Saratoga, battle of, 216 

Savannah founded, 127; taken, 223, 
400 

Saybrooke settled, 95 

.Schenectady, massacre at, 146 

-Schley, Commodore Winfield S., 454 

Schools, 540, 549, 550 

Schuyler, General Philip, 212, 218 

Scientists, American, 544, 545 

Scott, General, victories of, 279; cam- 
paign in Mexico, 324; candidate 
for President, 334 

Seal, fur, 441 

Seamen, impressment of, 269, 272 

.Secession of Southern States, 345, 351 

.Seminole War, 305 

Separatists in Holland, 78 

Session, a tariff, 474 

Seven days' battle, 375 

Seward, Secretary, attempt to kill, 
406 

Sewing-machine invented, 333 

Seymour, Horatio, 418 

Shafter, Major-General, 455 

Shay's rebellion, 235 

Sheridan, General, in Shenandoah 
Valley, 394; cuts off Lee's march, 
404 

Sherman, General, at Vicksburg, 370; 
at Missionary Ridge, 389; com- 
mander in West, 390; capture of 
Atlanta, 396; march through Georgia, 
399; march North, 403 



INDEX 



611 



Sherman, Roger, 201 

Shiloh, battle of, 367 

Silver legislation, 429; Bland bill, 

430; Sherman bill, 442; repeal of 

bills, 448; coinage, 516 
Sioux outbreak, 371; War, 423, 441 
Six Nations, 126 
Slavery introduced, 70; problem of, 

330; story of, 502-509 
Slave-trade abolished, 267, 505 
Sloughter, Governor, 107 
Smith, Captain John, 62-65, 73, V8 
Smith, Joseph, 317 
Smuggling in New England, 174 
Soldiers in Boston, 183; nuitiny of, 

234 
Sons of Liberty, 179 
South Carolina settled, 123; overrun, 

224; regained, 229; nullification in, 

302; secedes, 345 
South Dakota admitted, 439 
Southern officers secede, 354 
South, hostile acts of, 351; advan- 
tages of, 353; exhaustion of, 398; 

finances of, 408; new, 551 
South Mountain, battle of, 377 
Spain aids Columbus, 19, treaty with, 

255; war declared against, 454; 

treaty of peace with, 458 
Spanish army, surrender of, 457 
Spanish explorations, 41; claims, 45 
Spanish fleet, destruction of, 454, 456 
Specie payments resumed, 429 
Speculation, fever of, 304 
Spoils system, the, 300 
Spottsylvania, battle of, 393 
Stage travel, 524 
Stamp act, 178-180; Congress, 493 
Standard time, 434 
Standish, Captain Miles, 82 
Stark, John, 193, 213 
Starving time, the, 65 
State repudiation, 309; governments 

formed, 413 
States and Territories, table of, 581 
States, disunion of, 236; ratify Consti- 
tution, 240; readmission of seceded, 

414, 419 
Steamboat invented, 266, 526 
Steamship crosses the Atlantic, 266, 

522 



Stephens, Alexander H., Vice-Presi- 
dent of Confederacy, 346 

Stevenson, Adlai E., Vice-President, 
445 

Stony Point taken, 221 

Stowe, Mrs. H. B., 340 

Street railways, 529 

Strikes, 430, 443, 446 

Stuyvesant, Governor, 104 

Sub-treasury system, 309, 327 

Suffrage in Rhode Island, 312 

Sugar culture, 531 

Sullivan, General, defeats the In- 
dians, 220 

Sumner, attack on Senator, 336 

Sumner, General Edwin V., 374 

Sunday in New England, 132 



Table of States and Territories, 581; 

of Presidents, 682 
Taft, William H., 468, 469, 471 
Tariff question, 288; of 1827, 297; of 

war, 407; McKinley, 441; Wilson, 

446; of 1897, 451; of 1913, 474, 478 
Tarleton, Colonel, 224, 227 
Taxation, 178, 181, 185, 483 
Taylor, General Zachary, on Rio 

Grande, 321; at Monterey, 323; at 

Buena Vista, 323; elected President, 

329; death of, 332 
Tea, tax on, 185; party, Boston, 186 
Tecumseh, war with, 272; killed, 279 
Telegraph invented, 318; ocean cable 

laid, 343, 528 
Telephone invented, 529 
Temperature reform, 298, 554 
Tennessee admitted, 250; occupied, 

361 
Tenure of office act, 415 
Territorial extension, 555 
Texas, insurrection in, 316; annexed, 

316; war in, 321 
Thames, battle of, 279 
Thomas, General, 366; at Chicka- 

mauga, 388; at Missionary Ridge, 

389; at Nashville, 398 
Ticonderoga, Fort, built, 162; battle 

at, 163; taken by Ethan Allen, 195 
Tilden, Samuel J., 426 



G12 



INDEX 



Tobacco taken to England, 56; grown 
in Virginia, 67; culture of, 502 

Tories, treatment of, 236 

Townsend Acts, 181 

Trade commission, 478 

Travel, colonial, 523 

Treasury notes issued, 514 

Treaty of peace, 168, 232, 283, 325, 
458 

Trenton, victory of, 207, 208 

Tripoli, war with, 262 

Troops called out, 350 

Trusts, the, in court, 471 

Tunnel, New York, 472 

Tuscarora Indian War, 126 

Tyler, John, Vice-President, 311; 
President, 311 



u 

" Uncle Tom's Cabin " published, 340, 
507 

Underground railroad, 332, 507 

United Colonies of New England, 500 

United States, independence declared, 
201; recognized by France, 217; in- 
dependence acknowledged by Eng- 
land, 232; articles of Confederation 
of, 234; Constitution of, 240, 558; 
Hawaii annexed to, 457; territory 
won from Spain, 458 

United States Bank, 251, 284, 303, 
513, 514 

Upland, village of, 112 

I'tah settled by Mormons, 318; ad- 
mitted, 448 



Van Buren, Martin, Vice-President, 

307; President, 307; candidate, 310, 

329 
Vera Cruz taken, 324 
Vermont admitted, 250 
Verrazano, voyage of, 46 
Vespucci, voyages of, 25; America 

named after, 25 
Vicksburg, expedition against, 370; 

capture of, 386 
Vigilance committee, 328 



Vineland discovered, 12; voyages to, 
13 

Virginia named, 56; North and South, 
57; colony in, 61; government of, 
66-70; a royal province, 72; joins 
Confederacy, 354; in 1862, 371 

w 

Wallace, General, defeated by Early, 
393 

War declared against England, 273; 
seat of, 274; declared against Mexi- 
co, 321; civil, 363; preparations for, 
453; declared against Spain, 454; 
results of, 458; with Germany, 480- 
482; results of, 484 

Ward, General Artemas, 196 

Warner, Seth, 195 

Warren, Cieneral, death of, 197 

Washington, city of, taken by the 
British, 280; threatened by Early, 
393 

Washington, George, mission to 
French forts, 154; at Fort Necessity, 
157; with Braddock, 159; takes Fort 
Duquesne, 165; commander-in-chief, 
195; at Boston, 197; at New York, 
203; retreat to the Delaware, 205; 
at Trenton, 207; at Princeton, 208; 
at .Morristown, 209; defends Phila- 
delphia, 211; at Valley Forge, 212, 
217; at Monmouth, 219; at York- 
town, 230; president of convention, 
238; President of the United States, 
247; retires, 255; death of, 259; 
monument to, 434 

Washington, Colonel William A., 227 

Washington, state of, admitted, 439 

Wayne, General, at Stony Point, 221, 
253 

Weather Bureau, 421 

Webster, great oration of, 301, 312, 
314; death of. 333 

Wesleys in Georgia, 128 

West, Settlement of the, 242; situa- 
tion of, 369, 520 552 

West Virginia, war in, 357; admitted, 
410 

Weyler, (leneral, cruelty of, 452 

Wheat culture, 526 



INDEX 



613 



Whig party, 307; opposes Tyler, 312, 

499 
Whiskey War, the, 252; ring, 422 
Whitefield in Georgia, 128 
Whitman, Dr., saves Oregon, 315 
Whitney, Eli, 246 
Wild-cat banks, 308 
Wilderness, battle of, 392 
William and Mary College, 548 
William, Roger, 86, 92 
Williamsburg, battle of, 372 
Wilmot Proviso, 326 
Wilson, Henry, Vice-President, 425 
Wilson, Woodrow, 474, 481 
Winthrop, John, 83; colony of, 95 
Wisconsin admitted, 326 
Witchcraft, Salem, 90 



Wolfe, General, at Quebec, 165; death 

of, 167 
Woman suffrage, 448, 497 
Women brought to Virginia, 69 
World's Fair, New York, 339; Centen- 
nial, 426; Columbian, 443; Louisi- 
ana Purchase, 465; Panama-Pacific, 
476 
Writs of Assistance, 175 
Wyoming, massacre of, 219 
Wyoming, State of, admitted, 439 



Yale College, 542 

Yellow fever in South, 431 

Yorktown taken by Washington, 230; 

besieged by McClellan, 372 
Young, Brigham, 318 



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